
Class _T£_mi_ 

Book :RS1— 

Copyright ]^°_ 

COPTOIGHT DEPOSIT. 



The Essentials of 
Our Language 

A Guide to Accuracy in the Use of the English Language 



BY 

George W. Rine, B. L. 



"To acquire a few tongues," says a French writer, "is the task 
of a few years; but to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life." 

— COLTON. 

"Let him who would rightly understand the grandeur and dignity 
of speech, meditate on the deep mystery involved in the revelation of 
the Lord Jesus as the Word of God." — Farrar. 



PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING CO. 

OAKLAND , CALIFORNIA 
San Francisco Kansas City New York 






THE L l&^ARV or 
CONGRESS. 

MAY. 12 1902 

COPVaiGHT ENTRY 

CLASS ^XXc. No. 
COPY 3. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year 1902 by 

PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 



All Rights Reserved, 




PREFATORY NOTE. 

J^ This book has beeni written with a special view to 

the needs of that large number of young and middle- 
^ aged persons who, unable to attend school, are yet 

^ desirous of mastering the essentials of good English. 

It has been planned for the convenience of all who, in 
default of schools and teachers, are willing to teach 
themselves. It is assumed that the learner has a fair 
knowledge of elementary English grammar. The prac- 
tical principles of grammar, which need the emphasis of 
iteration, have been set forth and exemplified under the 
title, ^'Slips in Syntax.'^ The nature and aim of each 
chapter are stated in the introduction thereto. 
\/'^The book is likewise adapted to the requirements of 
such school classes as have finished the study of English 
grammar, but are not prepared to begin the study of 
formal rhetoric. , I believe that this work will serve as a 
natural transition from the former to the latter of these 
two branches of English. The chapter entitled 'Team- 
ing by Doing" was compiled with special reference to 
the needs of that grade of pupils. 

The book, being replete with illustrative matter, will 
serve as a convenient side-help to teachers of grammar 
and practical rhetoric. It contains much that will prove 
helpful for purposes of further emphasizing, illustrat- 
ing, and varying the facts enunciated in the regular 
text-book. 

(v) 



VI PREFATORY NOTE. 

The student will not find himself embarrassed with 
needless rules and directions, which mar so many other- 
wise good text-books on English. Much that is usually 
given in rules may be safely left to the judgment of the 
teacher and to the common sense of the student. 

Professor Meikle John's advice to teachers of second- 
ary English is so timely that I insert it here: 'The 
teacher is earnestly advised to discourage and even to 
forbid long dissertations and lengthy essays, which ab- 
sorb too much of the teacher's time, and promote in the 
pupil habits of verbosity and loose writing. A short 
exercise of ten lines, carefully and thoroughly polished, 
will do more for the pupil than a wordy essay of as 
many pages. Once he has been shown the way, it is 
the pupil who ought to do the polishing, and not the 
teacher." 

It is really not very important as to the order in which 
the Parts of this work are studied. Parts I and II 
might be studied together. A part of the matter for a 
lesson might be taken from the one and a part from the 
other. The Part treating of synonyms may be taken up 
in connection with any or all of the other Parts. The 
teacher will determine matters of this kind by the cir- 
cumstances of her class. The requirements under 
''Learning by Doing" should, of course, be distributed 
over the entire time required to complete the book. One 
or two recitations each week may be devoted to work 
there prescribed. 

George W. Rine. 

Jan. I, 1902. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART I. 

Accuracy in the Use of Words - - - 9 

PART II. 

Slips in Syntax ------ 55 

PART III. 
Punctuation and Capitals - - - . - 103 

PART IV. 
The Art of Correspondence - - - 139 

PART V. 

The Art of Sentence-Building - - - 157 

PART VI. 

Practical Synonyms Discriminated - - 207 

PART VII. 
Learning by Doing - - - - - - 249 

Index - - - - - - - - 277 



(vii) 



PART L 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 

One has gone a long distance in the direction of attain- 
ing proficiency in the use of his mother tongue, when he 
has mastered the art of using words and phrases with 
propriety and precision. It is only persons of culture 
and of extended experience in literary effort who seldom 
make mistakes in the use of words. 

The object of Part I. is to afford the student one of 
the means necessary to the mastering of the art of verbal 
precision. I must remind the student, however, that 
tact and discrimination in the use of words can not be 
acquired unless he thoroughly and sympathetically study 
at least a few^the more the better — of the masterpieces 
of English literature. Nothing can take the place of a 
sympathetic acquaintance with the artistic diction exem- 
plified in classic English. 

I shall now point out and illustrate the correct use of 
a somewhat long list of words and phrases that are com- 
monly misused: — 

Abortive is a word often misused in the sense of un- 
successful ; as, ''He made an abortive attempt to deceive 
me." That which is untimely, premature, or brought 
forth too early is abortive. Hence, the use of abortive 
for unsuccessful is permissible only when the failure to 

(9) 



lO THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

succeed is owing to the effort being made too soon, be- 
fore the circumstances warrant. . 

The most careful writers do not use above as an ad- 
jective or as a noun. It is better to say, the aforesaid, 
or foregoing, or preceding explanation, than the above 
explanation. The use of such locutions as above men- 
tioned and aboz'c referred to has the sanction of the best 
writers. 

Another unwarranted use of above is to make it serve 
for more than; as, ''above a hundred," ''above a mile." 
"The giant was not above [more than] six and a half 
feet tall." 

Accept of is a phrase to the use of which many are 
addicted. There is no reason whatever for inserting of 
after accept. One accepts an offer, but does not accept 
of an offer. 

Medicine, oaths, governments", and affairs of state gen- 
erally, are administered; but a blow is dealt, an insult is 
offered. A New York paper recently reported that 
"Carson died from a blow administered [dealt] By a 
policeman." 

Scholarly persons do not use aggravate when they 
mean irritate, annoy, or provoke. "By her continual 
fault-finding the teacher aggravated [say irritated'] her 
pupils." He is easily aggravated [say provoked]. To 
aggravate means to intensify, to heighten, or to make 
worse, that which is already bad, painful, or undesirable. 
It is correctly used in the following sentences : "The con- 
tinuous din and roar of the street aggravates the patient's 
suffering." "By adding falsehood to theft the boy aggra- 
vated his guilt." "One effect of the appearance of 
'Uncle Tom's Cabin' was to aggravate the bitterness that 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. II 

the slave-owner cherished toward the aboHtionist of the 
North." 

To use agree as a synonym of admit is a gross im- 
propriety. Thus, 'T agree [admit] that he has a better 
claim to it than I.'' 

It savors of pedantry to use advent when the familiar 
word arrive will express the idea intended. To say, 
"We shall not go to the mountains until the advent of 
our friends from the South," sounds at least stilted, if 
not vulgar. We may speak of the advent of that which 
is stately, sacred, or especially important. 

Agriculturist and conversationist are much to be pre- 
ferred to agriculturalist and conversationalist. 

Ain't is a contraction that can in nowise be justified. 
It is an unqualified vulgarism. Fm not for / am not, and 
we're not for we are not, are contractions sanctioned by 
good usage. 

The phrase all of should seldom, if ever, be used. In- 
stead of ''Tom took all of them," and "I like all of them," 
say, ''Tom took them all," and "I like them all." 

It is far better to say that the excitement spread "over 
all the State," than ''all over the State." Instead of 
"The agent sold books all over the county," say, "The 
agent sold books over all the county." 

A crude impropriety, common in the South, is allow 
for think or for admit. Thus, "Mr. Blank allows 
[thinks'] that his town has the finest fire department in 
the State." "He allozved [admitted] th3it I tried harder 
to win the prize than he did." 

One needs to exercise care not to confound allude with 
refer. To refer to an event or incident is to mention it 



12 THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH. 

directly, openly. To allude to it is merely to suggest it 
by introducing something analogous. 
When Lowell wrote, — 

''Daily with souls that cringe and plot, 
We Sinais climb and know it not," 

he alhided to Moses' ascending Mt. Sinai into the pres- 
ence of God. But when a preacher speaks to his con- 
gregation of that event, he refers to it. The distinctive 
significance of allude needs to be jealously guarded in 
these days of reckless speech. 

All the same is a colloquial phrase, hence admissible 
in familiar conversation, but should never be used in 
formal discourse, either oral or written. The proper 
word is nevertheless. 

Alternative may be used ortly to express a choice be- 
tween two courses. Thus, ''Heretics were offered the 
alternative of turning or burning.'' But it would not 
be good English to say that "To surrender was the only 
possible alternative.^' To surrender was the only pos- 
sible coiirse. We were left the choice of three (or more) 
courses, not alternatives. 

Another gross blunder is the use of and for to in such 
sentences as ''Try and earn all the money you can." 
"Come and help me this afternoon." "Go and see the 
patient, if you can." In each of these sentences to, not 
and, should be used. 

Anticipate is used altogether too thoughtlessly by 
tyros. Its etymological meaning is "to take before- 
hand ;" to go before so as to preclude another ; to get the 
start of or to get ahead of; to possess, or enjoy, or suffer 
in expectation ; to foresee, or foretaste. It is misused in 
such sentences as, "The enemy's fleet being 'bottled up/ 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 1 3 

its capture is daily anticipated [expected],'' ''Because 
of ideal weather conditions, wt anticipate [expect] excel- 
lent crops this season." In the following sentences 
anticipate is properly employed: ''If not anticipated, I 
shall sometime attempt the construction of a steam- 
propelling bicycle.'' "He would probably have died by 
the hand of the executioner, if the executioner had not 
been anticipated by the populace."' — Macaulay. "The 
true Christian anticipates the joys of heaven." "We 
anticipate what a person is going to say by saying it be- 
fore him." — Crabb, "In several respects the Mosaic law 
is declared to have anticipated modern science by several 
thousand years." — Hosmer. "I shall, indeed, anticipate 
their fury by falling into a mad passion myself." — 
Goldsmith. 

The student should study the explanations and illus- 
trations of this word in the larger dictionaries and works 
on synonyms until he fully grasps its delicate and subtile 
import. 

Not infrequently anxious is made to do duty for de- 
sirotis. To suffer from suspense or uncertainty, to be 
concerned about the future, to be uneasy, unquiet, is to 
be anxious. Thus : "Mr. and Mrs. Brown were anxious 
in regard to the fate of their son, who had been a pas- 
senger on the ill-fated steamer." "The members of the 
senior class were nervously anxious in regard to results 
of the final examination that was to be given them." 

Here are some examples of the misuse of anxious : — 

"She is anxious to visit Europe next summer." "My 
father is anxious to have me complete a college course." 
"He was a good man, always anxious to do something 
for others." "He is very anxious to get into politics." 



14 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

''I am anxious to post these letters before the next mail 
goes out.'^ Obviously the proper word in these sen- 
tences is desirous, followed by the necessary modifica- 
tions. 

In dignified discourse the colloquialism anyhow should 
be displaced by such locutions as at any rate, in any 
event, be that as it may, and the like. There is no objec- 
tion to the use of anyhow in ordinary conversation. 

Appreciate is another pitfall for unwary feet. To ap- 
preciate men or things is to estimate them justly, to set 
a true value upon them. Hence, to say 'T appreciate 
her highly,'' or 'T appreciate him very much,'' is an ab- 
surdity. 'T have great regard for her," 'T hold him in 
high esteem," are proper substitutes. It is all right to 
say 'T appreciate him," if you mean that you have a true 
estimate of him — of his faults as well as of his excel- 
lences. 

Likely and liable are often crowded out of their places 
by the small word apt. Apt should be used in the sense 
of naturally skilful, fit, or qualified; as, "He is an apt 
teacher ; an apt debater ; an apt solicitor," etc. The form 
may be varied thus : ''He has aptitude for teaching, for 
debating," etc. In the sentences that follow use likely or 
liable, according to the meaning intended : — 

"Where shall I h^ likely [not apf] to find him?" "If 
carefully directed, the letter will be likely [not apt] to 
reach him." "Unless you are vigilant, you are liable 
[not apf] to get into trouble." "It is likely to rain, or 
liable to rain [not apt] this afternoon." 

Reputable writers and speakers invariably prefer the 
locution as if to that of as though. Hence the follow- 
ing : "The horse looks as if [not as though] he had never 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 1 5 

been groomed/' ''The child cried as if [not as though] 
it was hungry/' ''The oarsmen row as if [not as though] 
they were tired/' 

This preference is not an arbitrary one. Each of such 
sentences involves an elliptical clause, which is brought 
to light by an attempt to analyze the sentence. The first 
of the foregoing examples is equivalent to "The horse 
looks as he would look if he had never been groomed." 
Now substitute though for if and the result is nonsense. 
Each of the examples treated in the same way will show 
the same result. 

A company of people assembled to see, or look at, some- 
thing, is not an audience. Persons that come together 
to listen are collectively an audience^ and the place where 
they meet is an auditorium. Hence, the absurdity of 
saying that the audience at a game of ball, or at a boat 
race, was large. Persons at such places are spectators, 
not auditors. 

Authoress and poetess, the feminine forms of author 
and poet respectively, are terms that seldom, if ever, need 
to be used. A poet is one who writes poetry, whether a 
man or a zvvman. An author is a person who writes 
prose or poetry, not a man who writes, etc. Apropos of 
the words poet and author, Mr. Gould says : "Nothing in 
either word indicates sex; and everybody knows that the 
functions of both poets and authors are common to both 
sexes. Hence, authoress and poetess are superfluous. 
And they are superfluous, also, in another respect — that 
they are very rarely used; indeed, they hardly can be 
used independently of the name of the writer, as Mrs., 
or Miss, or a female Christian name. They are, besides, 
philological absurdities, because they are fabricated on 



[6 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

the false assumption that their primaries indicate men. 
They are, moreover, Hable to the charge of affectation and 
prettiness, to say nothing of pedantic pretension to 
accuracy. 

''If the ess is to be permitted, there is no reason for 
excluding it from any noun that indicates a person ; and 
the next edition of our dictionaries may be made com- 
plete by the addition of writress, officeress, manageress, 
superintendent ess J secretary ess, treasureress, walkeress, 
talkeresSj and so on to the end of the vocabulary.'' 

Mrs. Brow^ning, as well as Mr. Brov^ning, was a poet. 

Not infrequently avocation is made to do duty for 
vocation. A person's vocation is his regular occupation, 
business, or profession; that which he does for gain, or 
by which he earns a livelihood. His avocation is what 
he occasionally engages in for pastime, pleasure, or recre- 
ation. Mr. Grover Cleveland's vocation is the profes- 
sion of law ; his avocations are fishing, writing for the 
magazines, and delivering lectures to college classes and 
learned societies. Some one has said that every one 
should have both a vocation and 2in avocation. 

Avoid is not synonymous with prevent or hinder. In 
the sentence, ''There shall be no failure in our school 
work the coming year if I can avoid it," avoid should 
yield its place to prevent. Avoid properly means to 
shun, to keep away from ; thus, 'T shall avoid the use of 
all words that savor of vulgarity." 

Perhaps no word is more generally abused than awful. 
It is made to do service for all sorts of intensive adjec- 
tives and adverbs, by those whose vocabulary is smallest. 
Such terms as very, imusually, exceptionally, exceed- 
ingly, intensely, great, grand, etc., are put aside for the 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 1 7 

ubiquitous azvfvil Thus : ''We had an awfully [very] 
pleasant time." ''Harry is an azvful [unusually^ bright 
student." "He is an azvfully [very, or exceptionally'] 
strict teacher." "Isn't it an azvfully [very^] sweet 
baby ?'' Vulgarisms so gross are never found in the 
diction of cultivated persons. 

Azvful is a genuine English word, and a very useful 
one, too. It is thus defined by Webster: "Oppressing 
with fear or horror ; appalling, frightful." Further : 
"Fitted to inspire with reverential fear; profoundly im- 
pressive." A violent storm at sea, especially after night, 
is an awful phenomenon. The scene on and around Mt. 
Sinai, at the giving of the divine law, as described in the 
book of Exodus, was an awful one. Hence, the utter 
nonsense of "What an awfully sweet baby !" 

To talk about a slight cold or a severe cold is to use 
words legitimately ; but there is little sense in talking 
about a bad cold, as all colds are bad. They differ only 
in severity. 

Badly is often inelegantly used for had; as, "The pa- 
tient looks badly," "I feel badly." It is also inaptly used 
for very much; as, "He has wanted to see you badly/' 
"We shall miss father badly/' Each of these statements 
is very much in need of a very much. 

By using balance in the sense of rest or remainder is to 
prove one's sense of verbal propriety to- be lacking in bal- 
ance. "The excess of one thing over another" is the 
proper signification of balance. It belongs to the termi- 
nology of bookkeeping, meaning the difference between 
the credits and the debits. 



■It would be better still to use no intensive adverb here. 



1 8 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

To talk about the balance of the men, of the books, of 
the money, of the potatoes, etc., is an unmixed impro- 
priety. 

We may say beastly ravenous, or beastly drunk; but 
to talk of beastly weather, or of his being beastly ugly, 
or of one's being beastly tired, is, to say the least, crude. 
Refinement of speech tends to refinement of manners. 

No one belongs to the Browning Society, to a woman's 
club, to a secret order, or to any- other organization. Mr. 
Jones is a member of the Iroquois Club ; Mrs. Jones is a 
member of the Ladies' Improvement Society. 

Beside is only a preposition, never an adverb. It is 
properly used thus : ''He sat beside me," ''She sat weep- 
ing beside the monument," and so on. Besides means 
properly in addition to; as, "There were two cyclones 
passed over central Kansas besides the one you speak 
of," ''Besides the inducements already offered, he prom- 
ises to," etc. 

It sometimes takes the sense of beyond, moreover, etc. ; 
as, ''Besides, he refused to fix his signature to the peti- 
tion," ''Besides [meaning moreover], I am not in sym- 
pathy with the project." 

Better is sometimes inelegantly used with the mean- 
ing of more than; as, "It is better than a year since Uncle 
John was here." Better deserves better treatment. 

One may blacken another's name or reputation, but 
not his eyes or his boots. One blackens by means of 
calumny, slander, etc., but blacks by the use of his fist 
or his shoe-brush. 

A vulgarism that often escapes the lips of even edu- 
cated persons is the phrase blame it on. We should say, 
"He accuses or suspects his neighbor of having done it," 
not "He blames it on his neighbor." 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 1 9 

The use of bound in the sense of determined, resolved, 
doomed, etc., is an ofifense against purity of diction. 
''He is determined [not bound] to win/' ''He is certain 
[not bound] tO' be elected/' "He is doomed [not bound'] 
to fail.'' The proper use of bound is so obvious that it 
needs no explanation. 

But is sometimes made to serve for that and for than; 
and it is not infrequently superfluous. 'T do not doubt 
but he will succeed." Here that should displace but. 
In the following statements suppress but: 'T do not 
doubt but that it is true/' "There can be no doubt but 
that the President knows the facts in the case/' "There 
is no doubt but that he will comply/' "There is no rea- 
sonable doubt but that the document is what it purports 
to be. 

In the following sentence bitt is correctly used ^vith 
that: "I have no fear but that the message will reach 
him in time." Observe that to expunge but in this sen- 
tence would give the sentence the opposite meaning. 

Calculate in the sense of expect, purpose, intend, or of 
suppose, think, etc., is decidedly vulgar. So far as I 
have been able to observe, every one who has compiled a 
treatise on grammar or on rhetoric, has condemned the 
use of calculated in the sense of fitted, suited, adapted. T 
am certain, however, that in this case the critics are 
wrong and the people are right. Our only criterion for 
determining the genuineness of a word used in a given 
sense, is good usage. No higher authority can be ad- 
duced than that of the "Century Dictionary," "Webster's 
International Dictionary," Goldsmith, Hawthorne, and 
Macaulay. Here are a few examples : "This letter was 
admirably calculated to work on those to whom it was 



20 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

addressed." — Macaiilay. ''The minister, on the other 
hand, had never gone through an tyi^tvitnce calculated 
to lead him beyond the scope of generally-received laws." 
— Hawthorne. In a matter of diction the verdict of 
either. Macaulay or Hawthorne has more weight with me 
than that of all the purists. We need to guard, how^ever, 
against making a hobby of any word. -: 

Capable has an active, svtsceptible a passive, significa- 
tion. The former is often wrongly made to do duty for 
the latter. Examples : ''They must be made of a metal 
susceptible [not capable] of being polished." "We so- 
licit for the Dispatch only such articles as are sitsceptihle 
[not capable^ of pictorial illustration." Note Kant's 
happy use of susceptible in the following: "The object of 
education is to develop in each individual all the perfec- 
tion of which he is susceptible/' 

Most critics condemn the use of caption for heading. 
But its use in this sense has become so' general that the 
critics, I fear, will soon have to dismiss their scruples. 
The ground of their protest is the fact that caption is 
from the Latin word capere, meaning to seize; not from 
the Latin word caput, meaning head. In England cap- 
tion is never used for heading. 

Purists have loudly protested against the use of 
celebrities in the sense of distinguished persons. But 
the unhappy fact for the purists is that distinguished per- 
sons {celebrities) use the word in this as well as in its 
primary sense. Are not great authors the court of last 
resort? 

We need to guard against using character for reputa- 
tion. One's character is what he is, as God knows him. 
One's reputation is the estimation in which he is held by 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 21 

men. Reputation, then, is not character, but what is 
thought of one's character. One may have a good char- 
acter and a bad reputation, and vice versa. Even Jesus, 
the world's ideal character, had, among the Pharisees, 
the reputation of being a glutton and winebibber. Not 
character, but reputation, is injured by calumny. The 
two words are not synonymous. 

As a rule, claim should not be used for assert or 
maintain; as, 'T claim [maintain] that Bacon did more 
for the advancement of science than did Newton.'' 'T 
claim [assert] that the teacher was in error.'" 

Even clever persons sometimes use clever interchange- 
ably with kind, well-disposed, good-natured. Its only 
true meaning is skilful, able, bright. Examples of its 
proper use : ''Mr. W. J. Bryan is a clever orator." 'Taul 
Revere was a clever horseman." ''Most American sol- 
diers are clever marksmen." "Murat Halsted is a clever 
journalist." Practically every time one is tempted to use 
the much-abused smart, he will do well to inhibit the 
impulse, and instead say clever. 

So often one hears the locution condign punishment 
when severe or rigorous punishment is meant. Condign 
means suitable, merited, deserved. Hence condign pun- 
ishment is deserved punishment. Condign praise is mer- 
ited praise. 

Be careful not to say condone when you mean com- 
pensate or atone for. Condone means tO' pardon or to 
forgive ; as, "His friends gladly condone his youthful 
errors." 

In the phrase congregate together, together is redun- 
dant, hence should be suppressed. Congregate alone 
means come together, to assemble. 



22 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Consider is very oftem made to do service outside its 
proper sphere. It is not synonymous with think and 
regard, as it is made to appear in these sentences : ''I 
consider [think] him the ablest Hving orator/' "He 
considers [thinks] it his duty to advise me/' ''Lincoln is 
considered [regarded, or looked upon] as having been 
the greatest publicist of the nineteenth century.'' Con- 
sider means to reflect, to meditate, to weigh in the mind. 
Thus : 'T shall take time to consider your proposition be- 
fore expressing an opinion in regard to it." 

Contemptible is not a synonym of contemptuous. The 
former means deserving contempt, and is synonymous 
with despicable, though not so strong; the latter means 
expressing or manifesting contempt. We say properly : 
''A contemptible coward," ''A contemptible sneak/' but, 
''A contemptuous opinion," ''A contemptuous look," ''A 
contempttiovis mien." The student has perhaps heard 
the old story of Dr. Parr's contemptuous retort. A man 
once said to hirtl: ''Sir, I have a contemptible opinion of 
you." "That does not surprise me," returned the doc- 
tor, "all your opinions are contemptible/' 

To use couple in the sense of twv of a kind or ol a few 
is admissible in conversation, but should be scrupulously 
avoided in all formal discourse. The proper use of the 
word is to denote two that are united by some bond, as, 
for example, that of marria^ge. 

Creditable and credible have nothing in common ex- 
cept a few elementary sounds. The former signifies 
meritorious, worthy of approbation ; the latter, worthy 
of belief, or that may be believed. Thus : "He passed 
his examination creditably/' "The junior students have 
done creditable work this semester." "I am credibly in- 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 23 

formed that the late capitalist, Mr. Blank, bequeathed 
his entire estate to eleemo'Synary institutions.'' '*Mr. 
Stanley has written a credible history of the adventures 
of Mr. Livingston." 

A hungry wolf, an angry bear, or a malignant disease 
may be dangerous; but to say that a sick person is dan- 
gerous is decidedly absurd. A person may be danger- 
ously ill, or he may be in danger, but a sick man can not, 
in the very nature of the case, be dangerous. 

To demean one's self is not to lower, tO' debase, or to 
disgrace one's self, as many think. To say, ''He de- 
meaned himself like a gentleman," is as good English as 
to say, ''He behaved like a gentleman." Hence, one may 
demean himself either creditably or disgracefully. 

By substituting kind or sort for description in the fol- 
lowing sentences, the diction will be very much im- 
proved : "Our merchants imiport fabrics of every descrip- 
tion" [say, sort or kind]. "Fruits of every description 
[say sort or kind] are grown in California." Descrip- 
tion is a species of discourse, and may be oral or written. 

Despite should never be preceded by in or followed 
by of. "In despite of all the efforts made to induce him 
to try, he refused to do so," should be, "Despite all the 
efforts," etc. The phrase in spite of is sterling English. 

An absurd use of deteriorate is to make it serve for 
lessen, to take from, or to detract from. Thus : "Do not, 
by any means, think that I wish to deteriorate from, [de- 
tract from] the man's^ reputation." "It does not de- 
teriorate [lessen] Washington's fame tO' aver that he 
could not have done for our country what Lincoln has 
done." The only meaning of deteriorate is to grow, or 
to become zuorse ; thus: "Most edibles deteriorate with 



24 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

time." ''The morals, as well as the manners, of the Ro- 
mans deteriorated under the rule of the later Caesars." 

There is no impropriety of diction more grating to 
cultivated ears than the use of the term dirt for the term 
earth, loam, sand, or gravel. Dirt means filth or un- 
cleanness, and nothing else. Who dares to say that God 
made our planet to consist of dirt? Lord Palmerston 
defined dirt as ''matter in the wrong place." Loam or 
mud in the street is not dirt; but when it adheres to my 
clothes or to my person, it is dirt. Fruit-juice in a spoon, 
a glass, or a dish, is not dirt. It becomes dirt when 
spilled on the floor, on one's collar or shirt-front. Is it 
not pleasing to know that one's dead friend is under six 
feet of earth, and not under six feet of dirt? 

To donate expresses to most persons a meritorious act ; 
but the word is very ofifensive to the watch-dogs of the 
King's English. The critics, to a man, tell us that we 
should say give, grant, bestow, or present, but never 
donate. But the people will and do use the proscribed 
word; and I honestly fear that its use will survive its 
detractors. The noun donation, they tell us, passes 
muster. 

Don't, a contraction of do not, is often made to do 
duty for doesn^t, a contraction of does not. Hence, we 
m.ay not use don't where do not would not be appropriate. 
Don't can not have for a subject a substantive of the third 
person, singular number. 

Of the words due and owing, the former is not seldom 
made to serve for the latter. Whatever ought to be 
paid as a debt is due; as, "My taxes are due.'' "Con- 
stant obedience is due to God." "It is dtte to the public 
that I should state the facts in the case as I know them." 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 25 

In such sentences as follow, owing [not due] is the 
proper word : "The happy consummation of the Civil 
War was, in no small degree, ozving to the tact, the pa- 
tience, the wisdom, and the sublime resolution of Presi- 
dent Lincoln.'' ''Moody's success as an evangelist v^as 
owing to his unwavering confidence in the promises of 
God." ''Grant's rise to military primacy was owing to 
his iron tenacity." 

Editorial is essentially an adjective. Its use as a noun 
is an Americanism. In England an editorial is called a 
"leader." 

It is cruel, as well as crude, to inflict on cultured per- 
sons the pain of hearing such senseless locutions as "an 
elegant sauce," "an elegant apple," '^elegant coffee," "an 
elegant crop of potatoes," etc. Elegant is properly used 
thus : "The duchess was distinguished by her elegant 
manners," "No writer surpassed De Quincey in elegance 
of literary style." We can speak of ''elegant furnitiire," 
an ''elegant equipage," ''elegant costume," or an "elegant 
tea-set." In some of these phrases the word splendid 
would serve equally well. Here are a few synonyms : 
Graceful, refined, tasteful, polished, handsome, richly 
ornamented. 

A common redundancy is equally as well. Either 
equally or as should be expunged. Equally well, ot as 
well, expresses the idea intended. 

"He bore his misfortunes with equanimity." "His 
success as a judge was largely owing to his uncommon 
equanimity f' The chances are ten to one that the tyro 
would tack of mind on equanimity ; thus, equanimity of 
mind. As equaninnty means evenness or calmness of 
mind, the of mind is superfluous. 



26 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

The prepositions except and without are sometimes 
erroneously used for the subordinate conjunction unless. 
Unless properly introduces one of the divers sorts of 
subordinate clauses. Except and zmthont should never 
be used for this purpose. As prepositions their office is 
to introduce phrases, not clauses. Examples : 'T will not 
learn Greek unless [not except'] I am compelled to do 
so." ''He will not be admitted unless [not except] he 
can show evidence of good moral character." The use 
of except in the sense of unless was current in the seven- 
teenth century ; hence, often so employed in the author- 
ized version of the Bible. 

Excessively must not be pressed into the service of 
exceedingly or of very. 'Tt is exceedingly [not ex-cess- 
ively] warm." 'That is an exceedingly [not excess- 
ively] tall spire." Excessively means to a greater degree 
than necessary. Thus : "She grieves excessively T ''He 
studies excessivelyf' 

The champions of pure English do not countenance the 
using of execute in the sense of carrying into effect the 
death penalty. They contend that laws, orders, and 
penalties, are executed; but criminals are hanged or 
beheaded, as the case may be. The people and the dic- 
tionaries, however, ignore this dictum of the purists. 

Expect may be used only in reference to that which is 
to come, and not to that which is past or present. In- 
stead of 'T expect you had a pleasant time at the sea- 
side last month," say, 'T suppose you had," etc. For 'T 
expect he must have felt relieved when the case was dis- 
missed," say, 'T suppose he must," etc. 'T expect to go 
to college next year," and "He expects io spend next 
month in Chicago," are examples of the correct use of 
expect. 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 27 

It is in bad taste, to say the least, to use the term 
female when woman is meant; as, ''Such aversion is 
natural to a female [zvvman^/' ''Doubtless a female 
{zvoman^ is a better teacher of children than a male 
[man]." Male ^nd female should be used only when it 
is desirable to point out sex. 

Find is sometimes absurdly used for furnish or supply. 
Thus: "The employers find [furnish] the tools.'' "Em- 
ployees are herewith informed that everything is found 
[supplied] by the firm." 

No reputable writer sanctions the use of firstly. Sec- 
ondly, thirdly, etc., are sterling English, but first must 
serve as both an adjective and an adverb. 

Perhaps no word is more "roundly" abused than fix. 
Its legitimate use is to express the idea of fastening 
down, making secure by binding, making permanently 
firm or immovable. Thus : "He fixed his eye on me." 
"Buried in thought, she sat fixed like a statue." In the 
following sentences it is wrongly used: "He will fix [ar- 
range] the furniture for you." "I shall fix [arrange] 
the books on the shelves." "Tell the servant to fix [re- 
pair] the fences this afternoon." In the following, fix 
is a vulgarism : "The sheriff will fix you all right." "He 
was in a fixJ' "I must fix up if I go with you." "Every- 
thing is nicely fixed. 

Forward, upward, downward, toward, etc., are prop- 
erly written without a final s. 

A very common blunder is the misuse of future for 
thereafter, afterzvard, or subsequent. Future cam refer 
only to time that is still to come when the word is used. 
Note the following: "Shakespeare quit London in 1611. 
Of his future [subsequent] life little is known." "Her 



28 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

father dying when she was forty, her future [after, or 
subsequent] Hfe was sad and lonesome." ''During all 
her future [subsequent] years the queen lived in com- 
parative retirement." ''At a future [subsequent] meet- 
ing of the Cabinet a decision was reached." "In 1800 
the federal capital was located in the District of Columbia 
for all future [subsequenf] time." 

The terms lady and gentleman should never be used to 
designate sex. Such use is a breach of good taste, as 
well as of verbal propriety. In the following sentences 
gentleman or gentlemen should yield its place to man or 
men; and lady or ladies, tO' woman or women: ''Gentle- 
men should be as much interested in the growing of 
flowers as are ladies." " 'If we were gentlemen' re- 
marked one of the ladies, 'we would all go to the front.' " 
"In this country gentlemen are expected to conform to 
the same moral standards as are ladies.'' 

■'In nine cases out of ten," says a writer in the New 
York Sun, "the use of gentleman for man is a case of 
afifectation founded neither in education nor politeness." 

There is no vulgarism more gross thad the barbarism 
gents for gentlemen. No man of culture and refinement 
— no gentleman, in short— would employ a term so crude. 
A mere gent might. 

Until very recently all professional critics have con- 
tended that got when used with has or have to express 
simple possession, should be suppressed. But in Gold- 
smith's phrase, "Times have altered," and Mr. Brainerd 
Kellogg, in the latest edition of his Rhetoric, tells us 
that the locution has got has the sanction of good usage. 
He proves his case, too, by citing a large number of ex- 
amples from authors of the highest order. Accordingly, 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 29 

we may say, "He has got a new watch/' ''Have they got 
the measles V ''He has got an EngHsh setter." We need 
to guard against this use of got, when such use would 
result in ambiguity. The question, ''Has John got a 
wife?" might mean, "Does John have \^possessA^ a wife?" 
or, "Has John procured a wife?" At any rate got as 
used in all the foregoing sentences is superfluous, though 
not erroneous. 

Instead of putting it, I graduated, He graduated, They 
graduated, we must now put it, I zvus graduated. He was 
graduated. They were graduated. Hence, "Garfield was 
graduated at Williams College," not, "He graduated at 
Williams College." 

Guess in the sense of think or suppose has. become a 
respectable colloquialism, to say the least. It should, 
however, be rigidly excluded from dignified composi- 
tion. Long ago Webster stigmatized this use oi guess 
as a "gross vulgarism." Suffice it to say that time has 
been very kind to this little Yankee favorite. 

Had ought is an unmixed vulgarism. Ought never 
needs to be encumbered with had. 

Would better and would rather are and always have 
been irreproachable EngHsh. Though critics have always 
looked askance at had better and had rather^ these locu- 
tions are gradually winning their way into favor. They 
have the sanction of such thinkers as Hawthorne, Rus- 
kin, Lowell, W. D. Howells, etc., — quite respectable 
authority. 

The past tense of hang, when suspension by the neck 
for the purpose of taking life is meant, is always hanged. 
In all other cases hung is the proper form. "The assassin 
was hanged [not hung] last Friday." 



30 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Only in familiar conversation may we use help in the 
sense of avoid or of prevent. Thus : 'T can not help 
[^avoid] making occasional mistakes." "I will not pay 
more for a hat than I can help {miist']'' 

Idea is not synonymous with opinion. 'T have an 
idea that it pays to be honest/' would be more aptly ex- 
pressed thus : ''It is my opinion that it pays to be honest.'' 
Idea means properly a mental image, a percept, a notion, 
or a concept. 

A gross barbarism that one sometimes hears is illy. 
The word has no place in our English vocabulary. /// 
is the noun, the adjective, and the adverb. 

In our midst, in your midst, in their midst, are phrases 
that careful writers avoid. It is safer to say among us, 
or unth us, etc. 

Professor Geo. P. Marsh has this to say in regard to 
the phrase in respect of: ''The deliberate introduction of 
incorrect forms, whether by the coinage of new or the 
revival of obsolete and inexpressive syntactical combina- 
tions, ought to be resisted even in trifles, especially where 
it leads to the confusion of distinct ideas. An example 
O'f this is the recent use of the adverbial phrase in respect 
of, in regard of, for in or with respect to, or regard to. 
This innovation is without any syntactical ground, and 
ought to be condemned and avoided as a mere gram- 
matical crotchet." 

Those who are partial to big words frequently say 
inaugurate, when they really mean begin, or introduce. 
Inaugurate has for its distinctive meaning, to install in 
office with more or less ceremony. "Next week we shall 
inaugitrate a new plan." Read, ''introduce a new plan." 
"Our educational work with the Indians will be inaug- 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 3 1 

urated next spring/' Read, ''will be started (or begun) 
next spring/' 

The phrase, It goes without saying, is at variance with 
the idiom of the English language. It is self-evident is 
a safe substitute. 

The noun jeopardy is a genuine English word. It will 
surprise many to learn that the corresponding verb, writ- 
ten jeopardize, is tabooed by the best authorities. To 
jeopard is the accredited form of the verb. Thus : "A 
people that jeoparded their lives unto the death/' 
Judges 5 : i8. 

I am about to go is shorter and crisper than I am just 
going to go. 

The a is superfluous in such forms as, "What kind of a 
fish is it?" "What kind of a man is he?" Simply, "What 
kind of fish is it?" etc. 

Kinsman is an old thoroughbred English word, too in- 
frequently used nowadays. It is an excellent word with 
which to "ring a change" on relative or relation, used to 
designate blood connection. 

Lengthened and long are no more synonyms than are 
strengthened and strong. They must not, therefore, be 
used interchangeably. 

Long and lengthy are synonyms in the sense of mean- 
ing much extended. But lengthy carries with it the 
additional idea of tediousness. A lengthy address is so 
long that it tires the audience. 

Though the dictionaries recognize both lenity and len- 
iency, writers of repute give decided preference to lenity. 
"Aguinaldo has expressed gratitude for the exceeding 
lenity [better than leniency] that has been shown him by 
the U. S. authorities." 



32 THE ESSENTIALS OF OU.; LANGUAGE. 

We need to discriminate between less and fewer. Less 
has reference to quantity ; fezvcr, to number. Examples : 
"There is less wheat grown in Europe than in the United 
States." ''There were not fezmr than fifty pupils in 
attendance.'' Fewer is used with what is counted; less 
w^ith what is weighed or measured. 

Lesser, though a double comparative, is well accredited. 
It may be used interchangeably with less. Its legitimacy, 
we are told, is owing to its being more euphonious than 
less. 

To many persons the word limited has become a fetich. 
They forget that small, slight, slender, etc., are pure Eng- 
lish words. It is better — sometimes, at least — -to say, 
''lozv price" than ''limited price;'' a ''slight acquaintance" 
than a "limited acquaintance ;" "small, or slender, means" 
than "limited means." 

Lit, as form of the past tense of light, we are told by 
some critics is obsolete, and that therefore lighted is the 
only permissible form. Lit, however, is recognized by 
both the ''Standard Dictionary" and "Webster's Inter- 
national Dictionary." It is, perhaps, safer to use lighted 
in dignified diction. 

Lend and loan are virtually identical in meaning. But 
lend, as a rule, is to be preferred. Some authorities con- 
demn loan. 

Careful writers and speakers studiously avoid the use 
of locate in the sense of settle. Locate is a transitive 
verb ; settle may be used transitively or intransitively. 
"Where will the immigrants settle [not locate] ?" "They 
will settle [not locate'] in Kansas." 

A great many and a great deal are often made to give 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 33 

place to the coarse colloquialism lot or lots; as, ''We have 
lots of friends/' ''He has lots of money/' 

Loud, louder, loudest, are not only adjectives, but ad- 
verbs as well. They may be used for loudly, more 
loudly, and most loudly, respectively. 

Persons who think do not love flowers, horses, pic- 
tures, apples, etc. ; they merely like them. They love 
their wives, children, kinsmen, sweethearts, truth, justice, 
God. 

Girls, especially, need to guard against making a pet 
of lovely. With too many of them everything is lovely. 
Would not beaittiful, or pretty, or graceful, or handsome, 
or pleasant, serve fully as well, — sometimes at least? 

Luncheon is the correct form — not lunch. The latter 
is permissible in conversation. 

Last and latest are frequently confounded. To say 
that you had just read the last letter from Blank implies 
that no letter will CA^er follow from him. But to say that 
you are reading the latest letter from B. merely shows 
that it is the most recent letter received from him. He 
may write many more. 

Luxuriant means exuberant growth ; as, luxuriant 
foliage, luxiiriant growth, luxuriant vines, and — figura- 
tively — luxuriant imagination. Luxurious, on the other 
hand, means ministering to luxury ; supplied with the 
conditions of luxury ; indulging in, or delighting in, lux- 
ury ; as, luxurious ease, a luxurious table, a luxurious life, 
a luxurious sofa, and so on. 

In public address, or when writing for the press, we 
should not use mad in the sense of angry. Mad prop- 
erly means crazy, insane ; violent desire ; uncontrollable 
appetite or passion. Mad, in the sense of angry, is an 



34 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Americanism. It was once so used in England, but is 
now avoided as an archaism. See Acts 26: 11. 

Pay a visits not make a visit, is the proper form. , 

To use middling for fairly or tolerably is to inisnse it. 
It may not be used as an adverb. Thus: 'Tie does his 
work middling [fairly] well," 'Tt is middling [quite'] 
good.'' 

Mighty for very is a common vulgarism. Those who 
prize clean English do not use such expressions as 
mighty small, mighty weak, mighty well, mighty pretty. 
What a pity that so noble a word should be so ignobly 
employed ! 

Mind is often made tO' do duty for obey. Thus used 
it becomes next neighbor to slang. It is at least inele- 
gant. ''Do the children mind you?'' should be, "Do 
the children obey you?" Mind may be used for remem- 
ber occasionally. 

To say, "Mary is capricious/' is in much better taste 
than to say, "Mary's mind is capricious.'' Her feet are 
certainly not capricious. 

Most should not be confounded with almost. Most 
is misused whenever it can be supplanted by nearly ^ 
without modifying the sense. Nearly and almost are 
synonyms, but most and nearly are not. 

^^Mutual friend," says Macaulay, "is a low vulgarism 
for common friend." Mutual signifies reciprocity of 
feeling or sentiment, and so can relate to only two 
persons. If Jones is both Smith's and Brown's friend, 
then he is their comnion friend, — not their mutual friend. 
But Smith and Brown may have mutual aversion — dis- 
liking each other; or they may have mutual afifection — 
loving each other. If Smith and Jones own jointly a 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 35 

certain farm, that farm is not their mutual, but their 
common, property. Husband ^ and wife have mutual 
love, but common interests. ''Their common enmities 
cemented their friendship.'' Suppose this sentence were 
changed to, ''Their mutual enmity,'' etc., could their 
friendship be cemented? 

It is said that Oscar Wilde once asked of a bright 
Cleveland girl, "Don't you think 'nice' is a nasty word?" 
when she retorted, "And do you think 'nasty' is a nice 
word ?" Nice is not nasty ; neither is nasty nice. Nasty 
is correctly used in the sense of foul, dirty, disgusting, 
nauseous, and even indecent. It is incorrectly used in 
the sense of disagreeable, unpropitious, wet, drizzling; 
as, nasty day, nasty weather, nasty climate. How much 
more sensible and apt would it be tO' say, a disagreeable 
day, etc. 

Scholars are by no means agreed in regard to the cor- 
rectness of using never in sentences like these : "He is 
culpable, though never so ignorant," "Let the offense 
be of never so high a nature," "Charm he never so 
v/isely." The preponderance of authority, however, 
gives the preference to ever in such constructions. 
Thus: "Were it ever so fine a day, I would not go -out." 
"If I take ever so little of this drug, it will kill me." 
Ever is clearly the safer word. 

"Nice is as good a word as any other in its place,' but 
its place is not everywhere," writes Mr. Alfred Ayres. 
The word is aptly used thus : A nice distinction, a nice 
calculation, a nice discriminatioh, a nice point ; also in 
the sense of subtile, acute, precise ; as, nice taste, nice 
judgment. 



36 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Except in conversation, nice is not correctly used for 
agreeable, pleasant, gratifying, delightful, good. Such 
locutions as nice day, nice party, nice sauce^ nice lec- 
ture, nice climate, etc., are all interdicted. 

Nothing can be more crude than the use of nicely for 
7i'ell in this fashion : "How do you do ?" ''Nicely, thank 
you." An apt response would be, "Quite well," or 
"Very well." 

The phrase "whether or no" in pure English should 
be "whether or not/' "Will he go or nof' Supplying 
the ellipsis, we have, "Will he go or no go?" Clearly, 
the right word in this construction is not, not no. 

The majority of careful writers treat none as a plural. 
Etymologically it is a singular, but using it as the sub- 
ject of a singular verb makes a very discordant com- 
bination. For the sake of euphony, then, it is better to 
conform to the practise of most scholars, and treat it as 
a plural. Not one, or no one is the proper form to use 
with the singular verb. 

"In general," wrote the late Professor Bell, "O should 
be used to indicate all deep, serious, or solemn emotion ; 
while oh is the better term to denote physical suffering, 
or light, trivial, hilarious emotion." I desire to add 
that when either of these interjections is used with a 
vocative, or direct address, O is to be preferred, espe- 
cially in prayers and adjuration; as, "Unto Thee, O 
Lo-rd, do I lift up my soul !" The Psalms are replete 
with examples. When uttering a strong wish, is 
often used ; as, "O for a lodge in some vast wilderness !" 

Observe, when used instead of say, or remark, is often 
aml^iguous. "What did you observe?" might mean, 
"What did you see, or notice?'' or "What did you re- 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 37 

inarkf As a rule, then/ it is better to use observe in 
the sense of notice only. 

Of should not immediately follow off. ''He fell off 
the horse;" not, ''off of the horse.'' "Get off the 
grass ;'' not, "off of the grass." 

The phrase universal panacea is tautological. Pan- 
aeea alone means a universal remedy ; a cure-all. Ex- 
ample: "According to Dr. B., a proper regimen is the 
only panacea/' 

The propriety of using the term pantaloons is, to say 
the least, questionable. "At any rate," says a writer in 
the Neziu York Sun, "it [pantaloons] is not a word of 
good repute in the English language." It is a word 
of Italian birth, and means properly a garment "con- 
sisting of stockings and breeches in one." The con- 
traction pants is a still more offensive barbarism. The 
fact that so many tailors and clothiers encourage its 
use by their example is most regrettable. It deserves 
to be unceremoniously bowed out of current speech. So 
long as we have the sound, irreproachable word trousers, 
we should use no base substitutes. A mere gent may 
wear pants or pantaloons, but a gentleman wears 
trousers. 

A paradox is not an absurdity, but a seeming absurd- 
ity. Hence, the incorrectness of the locution, "It seems 
like a paradox.'' To say, "It seems like an absurdity,'' 
is the same as saying, "It is a paradox." A .paradox, 
then, is not an absurdity, but a statement that seems an 
absurdity. 

To partake is to share something with another or 
others — as of food or other benefits. Those who have 
a penchant for fine words use partake instead of to eat. 



38 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

They say complacently, 'T partook of an orange/' or, '^I 
partook of some cake," and so on, when they know that 
not a crumb of the cake was eaten by another. 

Party is used properly m< legal documents. To use 
it to designate an individual without reference to legal 
matters is to blunder. "I spoke to the person yesterday ;" 
not, to the party. 

Such phrases as 'The past three years," 'The past 
ten days," and 'The past two hours," should be, 'The 
last three years," "The last ten days," etc. "The past 
three years" may mean any three years in the past ; not 
necessarily the most recent three years. 

The shopkeeper who speaks of his customers uses bet- 
ter English than the one who speaks of his patrons. 
Your patron places you under obligations to him; but 
your customer does not. 

Pellmell is an adverb that modifies such verbs as 
crozvd, mingle^ come together; and means in utter con- 
fusion; as, "Excited men, women, and youth rushed 
pellmell into the stock-market chamber." Hence, the 
absurdity of applying it to an individual ; as, "The thief 
ran pellmell down the street." 

To say, "a dollar a yard," "ten cents a pound," and 
so on, is to use purer English than one does in saying, 
"a dollar per day," "ten cents per pound." Per, being 
Latin, is properly used before the Latin forms annum, 
diem, and cent (per cent). 

Place should not be used for zvhere in such forms as, 
"The children want to go some place [where]/' "I am 
weary of sitting here; let's go some place [zvhere].'' 

The past tense of plead is pleaded, not plead (pled). 

Plenty is a noun, and can not be used as an adjective 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 39 

in the sense of plentiful. Money is plentiful; not, 
plenty. In those days deer were plentiful; not, plenty. 

Persons of culture do not speak of polite invitations, 
polite receptions, etc. ; but of kind invitations, kind re- 
ceptions, kind attentions. 

A common error is to say portion when part is meant. 
A share, a division, an allotment, is properly a portion. 
''In what part [not, in what portion'] of the state does 
he live?'' ''What part, or proportion [not, portion] of 
"the valley is arable?" The prodigal son received his 
portion of his father's property; i. e., a definite allot- 
ment. 

Mr. Fitzgerald writes : ^Tosted, or well posted , in the 
sense of well informed or instructed, learned, or well 
read, is slangy and shoppy — smelling of day-book and 
ledger." The use of posted in this sense is very general ; 
and the prospect of reform is not encouraging. Those 
who aim at accuracy will not seek to post, but tO' inform, 
themselves. 

Prepossess is a useful word that is too much neglected. 
It is the complement of prejudice. They both express 
a judgment formed beforehand, and without full in- 
quiry; but in the case of prepossession it is favorable, 
and in prejudice it is unfavorable. Hence, a person is 
prejudiced against another person, a doctrine, theory, 
institution, or what not. On the other hand, he may be 
prepossessed in favor of this, that, or the other. To 
say, ''He is prejudiced in her favor," is to utter a con- 
tradiction. 

"Preventive is better than cure." The longer form, 
preveniaiive, is not in good repute. It is used by only 
the unschooled. 



40 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Procure in the sense of get may be used occasionally 
for the sake of variety. Using it constantly in prefer- 
ence to get savors of pedantry. It is pedants, too, who 
are forever asking, ''Where did Cain procure his wife?" 
They would feel nervous if some artless fellow should 
ask where Cain got his wife. 

Vicious literature does not promote crime; it fosters 
crime. Promote means to advance only what is good. 

Proposition is too frequently used for proposal A 
proposition is something offered for consideration, for 
discussion, for demonstration. A proposal is something 
offered for acceptance or rejection. We make a pro- 
posal to another to enter into partnership with him. 
He accepts or rejects the proposal A proposition is 
usually in writing, and is given a. distinct form, with a 
view to its formal discussion. 

Proven, as the past participle of the verb to prove, is 
''confined chiefly to law courts and documents.'' The 
accepted form is proved, the form of the past tense. It 
has been proved ; not. It has been proven. 

Providing", a present participle, should never supplant 
the subordinate conjunction provided in such sentences 
as, "Mr. C. will give the city $25,000 to be applied to 
the erection of a library building, provided the city will 
raise annually $5,000 for maintaining the library.'' "He 
will go to college provided he succeeds in raising the 
necessary money." 

Parents who properly care for their children do not 
raise them, but rear them. P^armers raise chickens, 
calves, wheat, etc. 

The locutions, real pretty, real pleasant, real fine, etc., 
are solecisms. Real, which is exclusively an adjective, 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 4 1 

is here used as an adverb. Substitute very or decidedly. 

Relative is a better word thani relation, when speaking 
of one's kinsman. 

We should not praise the excellent rendition of a 
poem or of a play, but the rendering of it. We speak 
properly of the rendition of a lugitive from justice; or 
of the rendition of a town, of a fortress, etc., in time of 
war. We see, then, that rendition is a synonym of sur- 
render, of yielding up. 

Replace is sometimes misused for take the place of, 
displace, or supersede; as, "Who cam replace Mr. Blaine, 
Mr. Gladstone, and Prince Bismarck?'' ''Mr. Hay re- 
placed Mr. Day, in Mr. McKinley's cabinet." 'Tresi- 
dent Dwight, of Yale, was replaced by President Had- 
ley." In all these sentences replace should be displaced 
by displace, supersede, or take the place of. 

Reside is another pretentious word that should be 
used sparingly. The sturdy little word live is good 
enough for mature writers. It is much more natural 
and sensible to live in houses than to reside in residences. 
Residence is a useful word in its place, but needs tO' be 
employed with discrimination. But then some persons 
will walk on stilts and ride "bikes." 

Resurrect — the verb form of resurrection — is a bar- 
barism. Its use is studiously shunned by authors of 
repute. Here is an excerpt from iht Nezv York Sum: — 

"Our correspondent complains that he has seen the 
word resurrect in the Sun. If this be so, it was an error 
that we never noticed, and we now take it back and are 
sorry for it. In so saying, we enjoy the high satisfac- 
tion peculiar to one who is willing to confess his 
wrong." 



42 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

How much niQire restful the famihar locution go to 
bed sounds than does the more formal retire. Only a 
captious critic never says retire for go to bed. All per- 
sons with a sense of the fitness of things say retire oc- 
casionally, but only with due regard to the occasion. 
Men retire from business, or from public life, but, as a 
rule, they go to bed when the day's work is done. 

Gums is often inelegantly used instead of overshoes. 
Rubbers is another counterfeit substitute. Overshoes 
is the only one of the three that is above reproach. In 
spite of critics, the term rubbers wall remain popular, 
but should be rigidly excluded from dignified diction, at 
least. 

Neither revelation nor nature furnish any ground for 
calling the first day of the week Sabbath. Its only 
proper designation is Sunday. Among English-speak- 
ing people the Puritans were the first to use Sabbath for 
Sunday. 

Satisfy is sometimes very incorrectly used for con- 
vince. Thus : 'Tt will not take me long to satisfy you 
that Smith is in the right.'' Convince should take the 
place of satisfy. 

Scholar is too frequently used in the sense of pupil, or 
of student. A pupil is one who is more especially under 
the personal care and instruction of a teacher than is a 
student or a scholar. Hence, those who attend a school 
lower than a high school are usually called pupils; those 
in higher grades are properly called students. It would 
be well if the word scholar could be restricted to learned 
persons. 

The use of section for vicinity, neighborhood, part, or 
region, is not legitimate. It is a Westernism. 'Tn what 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 43 

part of the state does he Hve?'' is far preferable to, ''In 
what section of the state," etc. ''Does he live in this 
section f Say, "Does he live in this neighborhood f 

The correctness of the phrase seldom if ever can not 
be challenged. It is to be preferred to seldom or never. 

Our diction is not above criticism when we speak of 
settling oiur hotel bills, or our car fare, and so on. 
Speaking properly, we pay them. 

"Many years ago/' "six months ago,'' "about a year 
ago,'' and so on, are better authenticated forms of ex- 
pression than are, "Many years since'' "six months 
since," "about a year since," and so forth. It is better 
to use since only where an object or a clause is required 
after it. 

As depot is properly used to designate a storehouse, 
it is better to apply the word station to a stopping-place 
on a railway. The officers in control of some of the 
leading railways of America require their employees to 
use the word station instead of depot. 

Some should not be used for somewhat. "The patient 
is some better,'' should be, "The patient is somewhat 
better.'' "He is thinking son^e of buying an automo- 
bile," should be, "He has some thought of buying an 
automobile." Some is not an adverb. 

Specialty, not speciality, is the authenticated form. 

While many scholars shun the locution standpoint, 
the best dictionaries sanction it. Point of view is uni- 
versally accepted, and is therefore the safer form tO' use. 

State, as a synonym of say, means to set forth in 
detail ; to give all the particulars ; to represent all the 
circumstances of the case; to explain specifically; as, 
"Mr. Blank stated why he had quitted the Populist 



44 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

party." "He stated liis objections to the President's 
foreign policy." 

Note how different from these are the following : — 

"It is said [not stated] that the Governor will be his 
party's candidate for a second term.'' ''It is said [not 
stated] that the king's youngest son will enter the naval 
service." ''He said [not stated] that the meeting was 
harmonious. 

One stays, not stops, at a hotel, at the home of a 
friend, or at his own home. "At what hotel did you 
stay [not stop] ?" To cease to go forward, to leave off, 
are the ideas properly expressed by stop; while to linger, 
to tarry, to dzvell are correctly expressed by stay. 

Struck is the better form of the past participle of 
strike in all cases except where affliction is referred to. 
Thus : "The superfluous words were struck out of the 
sentence." "The victim was struck on the back." "He 
was stricken with smallpox." 

One needs to be especially careful in the use of such 
and so. Such has reference to kind or quality, while 
so implies degree. "I never saw so tall a man before," 
means that I have never seen a man that possessed so 
great a degree of tallness. "I never saw such a tall man 
before," means that I have never seen a tall man of this 
peculiar kind. In practically all such constructions, so, 
not snch, is the proper word. 

"He is an able lawyer." "Sure,'' answers the one 
addressed. The answer should be ''surely.'' Sure is 
an adjective, not an adverb. 

"Will you have some toast?" not, "Will you take 
some toast?" For the offering of civilities, ha^ue, not 
take, is the proper word. 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 45 

To use thanks for thank you is, to say the least, 
inelegant. Courtesy is never curt or brusque. 

Transpire is not infrequently used in the sense of 
happen, occur, take place; as, Momentous events trans- 
pired [took place'] during the nineteenth century. 
Transpire is further misused as a synonym of elapsed, 
passed by, gone by; as, Nearly forty years have trans- 
pired since the close of the Civil War. 

The actual meaning of transpire is to become knov^^n ; 
to leak out ; to come to light ; to escape from secrecy. 
Thus : "It transpires that the aggregate wealth of the 
United States, in 1900, was a little less than ninety bil- 
lion dollars. It has transpired that Mr. Brown wrote 
the poem that appeared anonymously in the Dispatch 
last week. They determined not to permit the proceed- 
ings of the council meeting to transpire. It transpires 
that negroes were not permitted to vote at the last elec- 
tion in Blankville. 

We shall try an experiment. Read, We shall make 
an experiment. Experimenting is trying. No one tries 
a trying. 

Unbeknown has no footing in the language. It is 
never used by those who write pure English. 

Under his signature — not over his signature — is the 
authorized form. The phrase does not mean under his 
signature as to space, but under the authority of his 
signature. 

Upward of in such forms as Upward of a year, Up- 
laards of half a century, and so on, is of doubtful pron 
priety, and should be supplanted with more than. 

We say properly, A valued not [valuable] contrib- 



46 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

utor, A valued [not vahtablc'] counselor. We may say 
a valuahJc horse, farm, jewel, etc. 

Veracity means truth or truthfulness, and can be ap- 
plied only to persons ; as, I do not doubt the speaker's 
veracity. Even his enemies admitted Lincoln's undoubted 
veracity. 

Critics have often assailed the use of verbal in the 
sense of oral. The dictionaries and many of the best 
writers sanction its use in this sense. Verbal strictly 
means, in words ; composed of words, whether oral or 
zuritten words. 

Way is often erroneously used for azvay; as. Way 
[away] down South, Way [azvay] out West, He soon 
made way [away] with the money. ''A long ways off'' 
should be A long zvay off. 

From whence is tautological. From is superfluous. 
We say properly, Whence came the apparition? not. 
From whence came, etc. 

Widow woman belongs under the same category as do 
free gratis, off of, royal monarch, and so on. Are not 
widows always women? Why, then, widow zvvmanf 

The italicized word or phrase in each of the following 
sentences is at variance with either Purity or Propriety 
Oif English Diction. The proper word or phrase in each 
case is placed within brackets. 

1. He was born in Spain, but raised [reared] in this 
country. 

2. I have ez'cry [perfect] confidence in his honesty. 

3. He as good as [virtually] offered to take them 
both. 

4. He is thoroughly posted [informed] on such 
matters. 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 47 

5. He nearly got into a scrape [difficulty] yesterday. 

6. It isn't above [more than] a fortnight since we 
saw him. 

7. He promised to come right azvay [at once]. 

8. He has just got over [recovered from] a second 
attack. 

9. He took me apart [aside] to tell me the news. 

10. It is funny [strange] that you did not see him. 

11. He seems bound [determined] to make the at- 
tempt. 

12. What could have possessed [induced] him tO' do' it? 

13. I need a new brush the zvorst zuay [I am very 
much in need of a new brush]. 

14. I can scarcely tell them apart [hardly distinguish 
them]. 

15. The Governor has deputized [deputed] Mr. Jones 
to act for him. 

16. This [thus] much may be said in favor of the 
project. 

17. Fruit is so plenty [plentiful] that it is very cheap. 

18. You will admire the go-ahead-a-tive-ness [ag- 
gressiveness] o'f the man. 

19. He would as lieve [lief] be a private as an officer. 

20. The observation [observance] of this law will be 
enforced. 

21. His rugged [vigorous] health is his best wealth. 

22. Our train is now at the depot [station]. 

23. I predicate [base] this statement on facts known 
to you. 

24. The traitor was hung [hanged] at ten o'clock. 

25. The report should be wholly discounted [dis- 
credited]. 



48 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

26. The boy held firmly to a banister [balustrade] of 
the staircase. 

27. His benevoknit actions [acts, or deeds] are not 
forgotten. 

28. Do you anticipate [expect] his arrival to-day? 

29. I indorse [sanction, or approve of] what the min- 
ister said. 

30. Are the angels corporal [corporeal] beings? 

31. To master the French language in three months 
is not practical [practicable]. 

32. The counter was covered with a various [varied] 
assortment of cards. 

33. He thanked them for the honor bestowed [con- 
ferred] on him. 

34. I would have gone if it had been never [ever] so 
stormy. 

35. It was a most hixtiriant [luxurious] banquet. 

36. The letter was addressed to the Reverent [Rev- 
erend] Mr. Brown. 

37. The children behaved in a rezm^end [reverent] 
manner. 

38. He bore the operation with the greatest courage 
[fortitude]. 

39. What method of proceeding [procedure] would 
you adopt in the case? 

40. Do not leave more than you can [can't] help. 

41. The falseness [falsity] of his statement was soon 
evident. 

42. He inflicted corporeal [corporal] punishment. 

43. He was exposed to continuous [continual] inter- 
ruption. 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 49 

44. He agreed to return! inside of [within] three days. 

45. He was not conscious [aware] of what had been 
done in his absence. 

46. In that way you will be most liable [likely] to get 
at the truth. 

47. The enormity [enormousness] of the cost of the 
proposed canal, etc. 

48. We placed everything in the shop at their dispo- 
sition [disposal]. 

49. I did not hear your anszver [reply] to his charge. 

50. There is a crack running down the center [middle] 
of the wall. 

51. You will be very apt [likely] to find him in his 
office. 

52. I could not persuade [convince] him that he was 
wrong. 

53. His future [subsequent] life is said to have been 
irreproachable. 

54. He seemed disposed to question the veracity 
[truthfulness] of my statement. 

55. In the meantime important events were transpir- 
ing [taking place] in Ireland. 

56. We have no desire to deteriorate [detract] from 
his merit. 

57. It was with difficulty that the lawyer eliminated 
[elicited] the desired information. 

58. He can't take care of himself, let alone [much less 
of] the children. 

59. My interests are synonymous [identical] with 
yours. 

60. His awkward handling of the mallet showed that 
he was only an amateur [novice]. 



50 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

6i. Abraham welcomed three heavenly visitors [vis- 
itants]. 

62. He rejected the proposition [proposal] made by 
his friend. 

63. I have foimd the package alluded [referred] to in 
your advertisement. 

64. He was azmre [conscious] of the hatred that 
rankled in his heart. 

65. In spite of his efforts, he could not remember 
[recollect] the date. 

66. After the witness had given his evidence [testi- 
mony] the case was adjourned. 

67. The Irish are perpetually [continually] using shall 
for will. 

68. The proprietor is an uncommonly zealous individ- 
ual [person]. 

69. His life shows clearly the falsity [falseness] of his 
character. 

70. The rogue deserved condign [severe] punishment 
for his crime. 

71. No one beside [besides] the near relatives was 
invited. 

y2. The practise of medicine was his lifelong avoca- 
tion [vocation]. 

73. Have you any idea [thought] of returning to 
school next year? 

74. The sincerity [genuineness] of his religion was 
attested by his works. 

75. They were all persons of more or less conse- 
quence [importance]. 

76. My employers have sent [made] me the remit- 
tances I expected. 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 5 1 

yy. Many Christians believe in the efficiency [efficacy] 
of prayer to cure disease. 

78. He had no just sense of the enormoiisncss [enor- 
mity] of his offense. 

79. My friend presented [introduced] me to his 
daughter. 

80. Every application made for the prisoner's pardon 
was unsuccessfnl [ineffectual, or unavailing]. 

81. The boy aggravates [exasperates] me very much 
by his impudence. 

82. A house on Piper Street was burglarised [entered 
by burglars] yesterday. 

83. He orated [delivered am oration] in the pavilion 
last night. 

84. He enthused [aroused the enthusiasm of] his 
audience. 

85. Uncle Tom was upon his ear [piqued]. 

86. It was evident that he had, the blues [was de- 
jected], 

87. His heighth [height] was six feet. 

88. Genius, in its usual acceptance [acceptation], 
means a great deal more than talent. 

89. The treasurer abdicated [resigned] his office. 

90. Inebriation [inebriety] is a ruinous vice. 

91. A cablegram^ [cable dispatch] was recently re- 
ceived. 

92. These virtues were all illustrated [exemplified] in 
his life. 

93. Those scandals have robbed him of his character 
[reputation]. 



*A newly-coined word, but will probably be sanctioned. 



52 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

94. I certainly admire your candidness [candor]. 

95. He can't be bamboozled [inveigled] with any such 
devices. 

96. Temperance is an important preventative [pre- 
ventive] of disease. 

97. Catholic forms of worship are more ceremonious 
[ceremonial] than are Protestant forms. 

98. A deadly [deathly] pallor spread over his face. 

99. Have you anything farther [further] to say? 
100. His address was exceptionably [exceptionally] 

good. 

The following words — in the sense indicated within 
the curves of parenthesis — are marked colloquial in the 
Standard Dictionary, and are permissible in informal 
discourse : — 

Bosh (empty talk). 

Boss, to (to act the boss). 

Breeches (trousers). 

Chuck, to (to pitch). 

Clip (a blow with the hand). 

Cute (shrewd, acute). 

Disgruntle, to (to vex by disappointment). 

Doctor, to (to repair). 

Engineer, to (to work a scheme on). 

Fib, to (to speak falsely). 

Fishy ( improbable ) . 

Fizzle, to (to fail). 

Fry (a state of excitement). 

Gallowses (suspenders for the trousers). 

Happen in, to (to make a chance call). 

Heft (weight). 

Hunk (a large piece). 



ACCURACY IN THE USE OF WORDS. 53 

Lot (a great deal). 

Miff, to (to offend slightly). 

Muffish (dull-witted; awkward). 

Natty (neatly fine; spruce). 

Peeper (the eye). 

Rattle, to (to disconcert). 

Reckon, to [prov.] (to think). 

Rugged (robust; strong). 

Scoot (to scurry off). 

Shaver (a lad). 

Ship (to get rid of). 

Sight (a great number). 

Snake, to (to drag or pull). 

Spin, to (to move swiftly). 

Thick (very intimate). 

Vim (fotrce or vigor). 

Wire (to telegraph). 

Yank (to jerk). 
The words that follow are marked slang — in the sense 
indicated — in the Standard Dictionary. They are not 
genuine English words, and must be discarded : — 

Boodle (bribe money). 

Enthuse, to (to make enthusiastic). 

Kid (a young child). 

Mossback (a conservative partisan). 

Plug (a silk hat). 

Pull (an advantage). 

Rope in, to (to decoy). 

Scalawag (a scapegrace). 

Shag-rag (the ragged part of the community). 



54 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Sorehead (a person disaffected by disappoint- 
ment). 

Splurge (an obtrusive display). 

Sport (a sportsman). 

Swell (a showy person). 
The following words, though marked colloquial — in 
the sense indicated — in Webster's International Dic- 
tionary, can now be regarded as pure English words, 
being so recognized by the Standard Dictionary : — 

Gush (effusive speech). 

Coach, to (to train by personal instruction). 

Headachy (subject to headache). 

Kelter (proper condition). 

Know-all (a wiseacre). 

Nag, to (to annoy, or tease, in a petty way). 

Offish (shy). 

Run (a trip). 

Scamp, to (to do work imperfectly). 

Scare (a fright). 

Seedy (shabby looking). 

Shaky (easily shaken). 

Tantrum (a fit of ill humor). 

Tip (a fee). 



PART II. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 

The object of Part 11. is to indicate the correct forms 
of those examples of false grammar to which the 
most of us are peculiarly liable. Not a few persons, 
who once mastered the theory of grammar, habitually 
violate in practise many of the most common gram- 
matical laws. Faultless grammar is the first requisite 
of good English. It is a degree of perfection of speech 
to which all can attain. The first step toward a mastery 
of English style is grammatical accuracy. It is only by 
extended observation and practise that such accuracy 
can be crystallized into habit — a habit invaluable to 
those who appeal to the public through voice or pen. 

Syntax is the art of so arranging the words oi a sen- 
tence as to indicate their true grammatical relations. A 
violation of the rules of Syntax is called a Solecism. 
Taken collectively, solecisms are commonly called False 
Syntax. 

The test of grammatical accuracy is the usage of the 
most scholarly authors of the present time, — of the pres- 
.ent time, because the English language, in common with 
all living languages, is a growing language, and is there- 
fore subject to change from age to age. What was 
faultless English in the time of Shakespeare and Bacon, 

(55) 



56 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

contains not a few expressions that are now solecisms. 
The few solecisms found in the authorized version of 
the Scriptures were not solecisms when that version was 
translated into the vernacular. 

Below are given the canons of grammar that are com- 
monly violated. Wherever practicable, illustrative ex- 
amples are given. Unless otherwise stated, the proper 
term or form is placed w^ithin brackets, immediately 
after the incorrect word. 

CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

A Unite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

(a) Each, every, either, neither, when used as pro- 
nouns, take a singular verb ; and if represented by a pro- 
noun, the pronoun is singular ; as. Each of the boys is 
required to supply himself with stationery. Neither of 
the girls is expected to procure her own supplies. 

(&) If each of two subjects connected by either or, 
_ or by neither nor, is singular, they take a singular 
verb ; if both are plural, they take a plural verb ; 
if one is singular and the other plural, the verb agrees 
with the one nearest. Thus: Neither wheat nor maize 
is grown there ; Neither the father nor his sons were to 
blame in the matter ; Neither he nor I am responsible for 
the loss. 

{c) A singular subject followed by an adjunct con- 
taining a plural noun takes a singular verb ; as, The 
circulation of books and papers is forbidden in Persia. 

(d) When a verb is placed between its two subjects, 
it agrees in number and person with the first ; as. The 
leader of the regiment was captured, and all his men. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 57 

(e) The pronoun you, whether in the singular or the 
plural number, always requires a plural verb: John, you 
zvere late this morning. 

(/) A collective noun in the singular number takes a 
singular verb if the collection is viewed as a whole ; a 
plural verb if the members are thought of separately, or 
as individuals; as. The jury zvus a representative body; 
The jury kav^ not yet agreed upon a verdict; The 
assembl}^ of the wicked have inclosed me (Bible). 

(g) Two or more nouns representing one person in 
different offices ; or two things so closely related as to 
be thought of as one, take a singular verb; as, The 
warrior, the statesman, the philanthropist zvus the first 
President of our beloved country. Bread and milk is 
a simple and wholesome food. Both bread and milk are 

wholesome. (In the last sentence bi^ead and milk are 
regarded as separate articles of food.) 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Each of the applicants were [was] given a second 
hearing. 

2. Either ignorance or carelessness have [has] caused 
this. 

3. Nobody but the speakers and the officers were 
[was] allowed on the platform. 

4. Thoroughness, not grades, are [is] what we 
should aim at. 

5. Was [were] you present when he spoke? 

6. Have [has] either of you seen my book? 

7. Nothing but disappointments and rebuffs seem 
[seems] to await me. 



S8 THE 1<:SSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

8. Neither of the essays read were [was] commended 
by the audience. 

9. A fine collection' of coins were [was] prominently 
displayed. 

10. The general, with all his men, were [was] cap- 
tured. 

11. Prudence, as well as industry, are [is] necessary. 

12. Every horse and every dog were [was] loaded 
with baggage. 

13. Not one of all the pupils were [was] able to 
answer the question. 

14. To his indolence, no doubt, is [are] due most of 
his failures. 

15. More than one failure has [have] been caused in 
that way. 

16. Neither the Mayor nor the Sheriff were [was] on 
the platform. 

17. Nearly every one of the boys were [was] pro- 
moted. 

18. What is [are] the gender and case of these nouns? 

19. One after another rose and expressed their [his] 
disapproval. 

20. How could any man get such an idea into their 
[his] head? 

21. Neither of the brothers have [has] yet signed the 
document. 

22. A large part of the exports consist [consists] of 
grain. 

23. Not one in ten of them are [is] likely to be admit- 
ted. 

24. Nearly every one of the papers they wrote have 
[has] mistakes in them [it]. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 59 

25. Has the committee handed in their [its] report? 

26. He treats every one as kindly as though they [he] 
were his relative. 

27. Early to bed and early to rise, 

Make [makes] a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 

28. Ten dollars were [was] too much. 

29. The public is [are] cordially invited. 

30. The council consist [consists] of nine members. 

31. A block and tackle were [was] used. 

^2. The ebb and flow of the tides are [is] explained 
in the second chapter. 

33. Bread and butter were [was] all we ate. 

34. Bread and butter is [are] sold in the markets. 

35. Nine-tenths of his trouble are [is] due to gam- 
bling. 

36. Justice, as well as mercy, have [has] their [its] 
origin in God. 

37. When a man makes such a mistake they [he] 
generally try [tries] to conceal it. 

38. Neither of us have [has] mistaken their [his] 
calling. 

39. At the head of the procession was [were] 
McKinley and Hanna. 

40. Each of the boys are [is] entitled to a half of the 
money. 

41. Each of these pictures were [was] then cut into 
two more. 

42. Every day, and, in fact, every hour, brings their 
[its] responsibilities. 

43. Nobody but you and me know [knows] where it is. 

44. Neither you nor I are [am] subject to these rules. 

45. Everybody leave their [leaves his] hat with the 



6o THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

usher when they enter [he enters], and call [calls] for 
it when they depart [he departs]. 

46. Every mountain, hill, and valley were [was] 
clothed with vernal beauty. 

47. Their religion, as well as their customs and man- 
ners, were [was] strangely misrepresented. 

48. The saint, the father, and the husband pray 
[prays]. 

(The three subjects refer to but one person.) 

49. The council was [were] at variance in their esti- 
mates of the probable expense. 

50. Either the proprietor or his servants is [are] to 
blame. 

51. Either the owners or the keeper are [is] to blame. 

52. The introduction of such beverages as tea and 
coffee have [has] not been without their [its] effects. 

53. A box of oranges were [was] sent us for Christ- 
mas. 

54. All work and no play make [makes] Jack a dull 
boy. 

55. Will or I were [was] going to call for you. 

56. Wisdom, and not wealth, procure [procures] es- 
teem. 

57. Everybody must do their [his] work faithfully if 
they [he] expects to succeed in life. 

58. He don't [doesn't] want to try it. 

59. The jury was [were] eating dinner. 

60. A hundred miles are [is] not far. 

INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The interrogative pronoun who (used also as a rela- 
tive pronoun) is declined as follows: — 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 6 1 

Nominative : Who. 

Possessive : Whose. 

Objective: Whom. 

Who and whom are in practise frequently confounded. 
Their grammatical value in the sentence is not so evi- 
dent as is that of nouns and personal pronouns. Can 
you see why the bracketed form in each of the follov^ing 
sentences is the correct form? 

1. Whom [who] do you think I am? 

2. Whom [who] did you say called yesterday? 

3. He gave his property to those whom [who] he 
thought were entitled to it. 

4. A/[ary married a lawyer whom [who] they say 
is very eloquent. 

5. Who [whom] did you take me for? 

6. Who [whom] can I trust, if not he [him] ? 

7. Who [whom] does the baby look like? 

8. We did not tell Ada from who [whom] the present 
came. 

9. Who [whom] are you writing to? 

10. That is the man whom [who] they said was 
insane. 

11. Who [whom] will you summon? 

12. I don't know who [whom] to ask for. 

13. Whom [who] do you think will be elected? 

14. Who [whom] should I meet yesterday but my 
friend Smith? 

15. Whom [who] did you say sat beside you? 

16. I do not know who [whom] he has invited. 

17. Who [whom] do you take me to be? 

18. Who [whom] is he talking to? 

19. She never knew whom [who] it was that spoke 
to her. 



62 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

t 

20. Whom [who] does he think it could have been? 

21. We hke to be with those who [whom] we love 
and whom [who] we know love us. 

22. The lady entered, whom [who], I afterward 
learned, was his sister. 

23. He gave the ring to James, whom [who] he 
thinks will take care of it. 

24. Who [whom] is this for? 

25. Nina was annioyed by the presence of Mr. Jekyl, 
whom [who] her brother insisted should remain to 
dinner. 

Of the relative pronouns the nominative zt;/io— ob- 
jective whom — is used chiefly of persons; the possessive 
zvhose, of persons, animals, and things. Which is used 
of animals and things. That is more restrictive than 
who or zv'hich, and is used of persons, animals, and 
things. 

That is never used to introduce a clause that is merely 
descriptive or progressive; i e., a clause that would be 
preceded by a comma, when immediately following its 
antecedent. ''Some grammarians would make the use of 
that obligatory whenever the relative clause is restrictive, 
reserving who and which exclusively for clauses that 
are merely descriptive or progressive. According to 
them, 'He prayeth best who loveth best' ought to be 
'He prayeth best that loveth best.' But this obligatory 
use of that in restrictive clauses has never been a rule of 
English speech, and is not likely to become one, partly 
because of the impossibility of using that after a prepo- 
sition, and partly because of the disagreeable sound of 
such combinations as, 'That remark that I made yester- 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 63 

day/ As a rule, euphony decides in restrictive clauses 
between who or zvhich or that/' — H. G. Buehler. 

That should always be preferred to zvho and zvhich in 
the following cases : — . 

(a) When the antecedent embraces both persons and 
things : ''The sailors and the ship that were lost at sea." 

(b) When the antecedent is modified by an adjective 
in the superlative degree : ''Alexander was the greatest 
warrior that the ancient world produced." 

(c) Usually when the antecedent is modified by such 
adjectives as eveiy, very, all, any, first, last, and next. 

(The last three of these adjectives are superlatives, 
but novices often fail to recognize them as such.) 

"Every book that is in the library is the gift of Mr. 
Blank." 

(d) That must not be used when the antecedent is 
modified by that: "That question zvhich [not that] he 
asked me," etc. 

(e) After indefinite pronouns (many, others, several, 
some, those, fezv, etc.), modern authorities prefer zvho: 
"Those zi^ho know can testify." 

(/) That is commonly preferred when the antecedent 
has no modifier except the relative clause : "Money that 
is earned is generally prized." 

Justify the bracketed relative pronoun in each of the 
following sentences : — 

1. Mr. Cleveland was the only President who [that] 
served two non-consecutive terms. 

2. Do you know that man that [who] is standing by 
the window? 

3. I have done many things which [that] I should 
not have done. 



64 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

4. Shakespeare was the most versatile man who 
[that] Europe has yet produced. 

5. That is the lady that [who] spoke to us yesterday. 

6. Those that [who] do their best usually win. 

7. The horse and the rider who [that] were lost in 
the desert have been found. 

8. The trees, that [which] are mostly walnut, were 
planted by my grandfather. 

9. At the entrance I met an usher, that [who] pro- 
cured me a seat. 

TO. Time which [that] is lost can never be reclaimed. 

11. Man is the only animal which [that] laughs and 
w^eeps. 

12. There are others that [who] can testify. 

13. The dog which [that] bit the man has been killed. 

14. He who [that] hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

15. The first person whom [that] I met was John. 

16. We generally like those that [who] admire us. 

17. Every man who [that] entered the service was a 
brave m.an. 

18. Was it you or the wind who [that] shut the door? 

19. It was necessity which [that] taught me Greek. 

20. It was the Generars horse, and not himself, which 
[that] fell in battle. 

THE PREDICATE OF A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

One is peculiarly liable to mistake the number of a 
verb that has for its subject a relative pronoun. The 
number of a relative pronoun is determined by the num- 
ber of its antecedent. Hence, when writing the verb of 
a relative clause, one must look back to the antecedent 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 65 

of the relative pronoun in order to determine the number 
form of said verb. 

In the follov^ing sentences, note the reason for the 
verb forms placed in brackets : — 

1. This is one of the most interesting books that 
was [were] ever written. 

2. Mark is one of the restless boys who is [are] al- 
ways impatient to do something. 

3. It was one of the most attractive programs that 
has [have] yet been given in this hall. 

4. She is one of the most successful teachers that 
has [have] ever taught in our district. 

5. One of his many excellent traits that comes [come] 
to my mind is his gentleness. 

6. She is one of the few writers who is [are] des- 
tined to be long remembered. 

7. My home is one of those that commands [com- 
mand] a view of the lake. 

8. In Liberty's name have been committed some of 
the most horrible crimes which [that] stains [stain] the 
pages of history. 

9. I look upon it as one of the most feasible schemes 
that has [have] been proposed. 

10. It is one of the words that adds [add] es to the 
singular to form the plural. 

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE. 

Of the singular adjectives this and that, these and 
those are their respective plural forms. 

The following sentences illustrate the misuse of the 
plural forms for the singular forms : — 

I. Those [that] kind of grapes are [is] best. 



66 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

2. Those [that] sort of people are [is] never pop- 
ular. 

3. These [this] kind of roses do not [does not] 
thrive in this chmate. 

4. Those [that] kind of trees is deciduous. 

5. How do you hke those [that] sort of collars? 

6. I am fond of these [this] kind of nuts. 

7. What do you think of these [this] sort of pens? 

I USED FOR Me. 

/ is sometimes erroneously used for me, when co- 
ordinate with you or with a noun, after a preposition 
or a transitive verb. 

Note the correction indicated in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Between you and I [me], I don't believe a word 
of it. 

2. The Saviour gave His life for you and I [me]. 

3. Please pass the bread to Harry and I [me]. 

4. The teacher commended John and I [me] for 
punctuality. 

5. The minister spoke to Mother and I [me], as he 
walked by, this morning. 

COMPARISON. 

If only two persons or things are compared, the com- 
parative degree of the adjective must be used; if more 
t.-an two, the superlative. 

1. Which is the most [more] desirable, health or 
wealth ? 

2. My wife is the younger [youngest] of three sisters. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 67 

3. '^Of two such lessons, why forget 

The noblest [nobler] and the manliest [manlier] 
one?'' 

4. Of two evils, choose the least [less]. 

5. Which is the heaviest [heavier], hers or mine? 

6. The smallest [smaller] of the twins is the most 
[more] active. 

7. Of the two. Homer was the greatest [greater] 
genius ; Virgil, the greatest [greater] artist. 

When a comparative with than is used, the thing com- 
pared must be excluded from the rest of a class to which 
it belongs. This may be done by inserting the word 
other. 

When the superlative is used with than, the particular 
term must be included in the class of things with which 
it is compared. The word other must then be omitted. 

Note the following examples : — 

1. London is larger than any [other] city in Europe. 

2. Of all other [omit other] beings, man has the 
greatest reason for gratitude. 

3. No [other] city in France has suffered so much 
from fire as Lyons. 

4. Texas is the largest of any other [omit other] 
state in the Union. 

5. China is older than any [other] nation in the 
world. 

6. Of all other [omit other] diseases, leprosy is the 
most malignant. 

7. Jumbo was larger than any [other] elephant ever 
captured. 

8. The Amazon is larger thafi any [other] river in 
the world. 



68 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

9. Victoria's reign was longer than any [other] 
British sovereign's reign. 

POSSESSIVE CASE BEFORE A PARTICIPLE. 

The possessive case of the noun or pronoun should 
precede the participle, when the noun or pronoun repre- 
sents the active agent. 

The italicized possessive in each of the following ex- 
amples illustrates this requirement : — 

1. I have little hope of his passing the examination. 

2. What is to prevent his finding out who did it? 

3. I have just now heard of John's being engaged in 
teaching. 

4. You remember mother's having made a Christmas 
dinner for the newsboys, do you not? 

5. The description of Rip Van Winkle's awakening 
is the most interesting part of the story. 

6. I can not endure the thought of Iheir being left 
homeless in the world. 

7. What do you think of my studying French? 

8. Frank's success will depend largely upon his being 
diligent in application. 

9. Edward's father opposed his entering the navy. 

10. The fact of his being in the street at so late an 
hour is very suspicious. 

THE CASE OF NOUNS OR PRONOUNS AFTER THE VERB 

TO BE. 

The noun or pronoun that follows the verb to be (as 
its complement), takes the same case as the noun or pro- 
noun that precedes it (as its subject). 

The examples below are illustrative: — 
I. Is it him [he] you wish to see? 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 69 

2. It might have been him [he] who did it. 

3. Do you think it was them [they] ? 

4. Who is there? It is me [I]. 

5. Do you think it was her [she] ? 

6. Who [whom] do you take me to be? 

(Whom is the complement of the infinitive to be, and 
hence takes the same case as the me preceding to be, 
A finite verb can never have a subject in the objective 
case, but an infinitive may have.) 

7. Should any one be punished, it will not be her 
[she], and it will be me [I]. 

8. I supposed it to be he [him.] 

9. I think it was her [she] who sent it. 

10. Who [whom] did you take my uncle to be? 

11. I proved it to be they [them] who were respon- 
sible for the accident. 

12. Was it her [she] you saw? 

13. If I. were him [he] I would not desist. 

14. Was it them [they] who opposed the scheme? 

15. It was either her [she] or her sister. 

16. He knew it was us [we]. 

17. He knew it to be we [us]. 

18. It was me [I] that gave the alarm. 

19. If you were me [I], would you attempt it? 

20. He knew that it was me [I]. 

21. He knew it to be I [me]. 

Below are given further illustrations Oif the right use 
of the nominative and the objective forms of the person -' 
pronouns. Remember that the correct forms are placed 
within brackets ; the incorrect forms immediately pre- 
cede the brackets. 

1. His brother is darker than him [he]. 

2. Let he [him] who can, solve this problem. 



70 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

3. To Gertrude and he [him] belongs the credit. 

4. With James and he [him] I have trouble. 

5. She invited them all, he [him] among the rest. 

6. What else can you expect from such as them 
[they] ? 

7. Mother told you and I [me] to start early. 

8. There is but little difference between you and he 
[him]. 

9. Everybody was on time except we [us]. 

10. The Smiths, as well as us [we], are invited. 

11. Us [we] boys went swimming yesterday. 

12. They invited you and I [me] to go driving. 

13. They [them] that whisper I will punish. 

14. It could not have been them [they], for they were 
absent. 

15. Everybody went except she [her] and her cousin. 

16. The man was afraid to let you or I [me] drive 
the colt. 

17. That is a new doctrine for we [us] Methodists. 

18. He [him] that overcometh w^ill I make a pillar in 
the temple. 

19. He [him] that cometh untO' Me I will in nowise 
cast out. 

20. Uncle Joe expects you and I [me] tO' meet him. 

21. Girls like you and she [her] should know better. 

22. Let none handle the sacred vessels but they [them] 
who are clean. 

23. Few speakers could have done as well as them 
[they]. 

24. But for you and I [me] he would have been 
killed. 

25. Who was the gentleman standing near Tom and 
I [me]? 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 7 1 

26. If I were him [he] I would never be seen there. 
2.y, He has given away half of his property to no one 
knows who [whom]. 

28. They [them] that obey, I will reward. 

29. He [him] who gives but a cup of cold water, will 
the Sa\iour remember. 

30. Him [he] who gives but a cup of cold water, will 
be remembered by the Saviour. 

ARTICLE BEFORE A REPRESENTATIVE NOUN. 

A nouii used to represent a class or genus should be 
preceded by the, and not by a or an. Thus : — 

1. The horse [not a horse] is the most useful animal. 

2. The apple is the most widely diffused of all fruits. 

3. The oak is indigenous to all lands. 

4. The bee and the ant are the busiest of insects. 

5. The house-fly has its uses. 

6. The trout lives chiefly in mountain streams. 

LIE, LAY, SIT, SET, RISE, RAISE. 

The principal parts of the verbs lie and lay, of sit and 
set, of rise and raise, are often strangely confounded. 
Hence, I give their principal parts below. Then follows 
a list of sentences illustrating the correct use of the prin- 
cipal parts of each verb. 



Present* 


Past* 


Present Participle* 


Past Participle^ 


Lie 


lay 


lying 


lain 


Lay 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Sit 


sat 


sitting 


sat 


Set 


set 


setting 


set 


Rise 


rose 


rising 


risen 


Raise 


raised 


raising 


raised 



72 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Remark. — The first verb in each of these three pairs 
of verbs is intransitive; the second, transitive. The right 
form of the verb in each of the sentences below is itali- 
cized. 

1. Let him sit there. 

2. I found it lyin^g on the table. 

3. Slov^ly and sadly we laid him down. 

4. During the storm yesterday the ship lay at anchor. 

5. The doctor told me to lie down, and I lay down. 

6. You would better lie down for a while. 

7. He told me to lay the book down, and I laid it 
down. 

8. We have three sitting hens. We set them last 
week. 

9. I sat in my chair, and as I dozed some one set a 
vase of flowers on the table by my side. 

10. He has sat all day in silence. 

11. I have set a guard over my tongue. 

12. After I had lain down, I remembered that I had 
left my purse lying by the open window. 

13. The footman was so weary that he lay down in 
his clothes. 

14. I wish you would sit still while I write the ad- 
dress. 

15. The river rose a foot during the night. 

16. The rising river raised the bridge about two 
inches. 

17. All the streams have been rapidly rising. 

18. She could not get her bread to rise properly. 

19. Mother said that her bread had risen nicely. 

20. The boy raised himself up before I could reach 
him. 

21. He has lain in bed long enough. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 73 

22. He has laid out the grounds. 

23. Dapple had to^ lie down on all fours before the lad 
could bestride him. 

24. The ship has lain at anchor since Monday. 

25. He looks as if he had lain there all night. 

26. I lay in bed just eight hoiurs last night. 

2J. The carpet does not lie smooth on the floor. 

28. Your coat sits well. 

29. He set the basket of eggs on the table. 

30. Set the chair in the corner, and let it sit. 

31. You set your hens and then let them sit. 

32. After a hen has been set, she is a sitting hen. 

HOW TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

All singular nouns — a few proper and abstract nouns 
excepted — and all plural nouns that do not end in s, 
take the possessive form by the addition of an apos- 
trophe and ^ C^) ; all plural nouns that end in s, take 
the possessive form by the addition of the apostrophe (') 
only. 

(a) The important exceptions to the first part of the 
foregoing rule are indicated in the following phrases : 
Moses' law; for Jesus' sake; conscience' sake; goodness' 
sake; Xerxes' army; Demosthenes' orations; Euripides' 
dramas. 

(fc) In compound nouns the sign of the possessive is 
added to the last part only ; as, my father-in-lazv''s farm ; 
the attorney-general' s office. 

{c) When several nouns denote joint ownership, the 
possessive sign is added to the last noun only ; as, Bryant 
and Stratton's Business College; John, Paul, and Alice s 
uncle; Gunn and Ferguson's hardware store. 



74 'l^HE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

((/) If joint possession is not implied, or if a dis- 
junctive word is used between the possessive terms, each 
one should take the possessive sign ; as, Mr. Smith's and 
Mr. HalTs houses are both new ; Men's and boys' hats 
are cheaper than ever before ; She would listen to neither 
her fafhc/s nor her teachei^s advice. 

(c) The apostrophe must never be used in forming 
the possessive of personal, relative, or interrogative pro- 
nouns. The indefinite pronouns one^ another^ and other 
form the possessive regularly; thus, one's duty; an- 
other's claims; other's (singular); others' (plural). 

(/) There are twO' recognized modes of forming the 
possessive of any one else, somebody else, etc. Thus : 
Any one's else hat, or any one else's hat; everybody's 
else time, or everybody else's time. The latter form is 
now generally preferred. 

COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Note the following list of plural compound nouns. 
Only the noun part of a compound word is made plural, 
whether that be the first or the last part of the word. 

First part plural. Last part plural. 

Attorneys-general Brigadier-generals 

postmasters-general major-generals 

auditors-general lieutenant-generals 

courts-martial rear-admirals 

commanders-in-chief mouse-traps 

lookers-on pailfuls 

fathers-in-law cupfuls 
brothers-in-law 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 75 

Both parts plural. 

Men-servants 

women-servants 

knights-templars 

Remark. — All the foregoing plural compounds take 
the possessive by adding the possessive sign to the last 
part. Those ending in s add the apostrophe only ; those 
not ending in s add the apostrophe and s, 

SPECIAL . NUMBER FORMS OF NOUNS. 

The following nouns are usually treated as plurals : — 

Tongs, pincers, tweezers, scissors, shears, snuffers, 
breeches, trousers, drawers (garment), nuptials, victuals, 
dregs, scales, ashes, oats, assets, proceeds, riches, vitals, 
entrails, stilts, suds, aborigines. 

The nouns in the following list are generally sin- 
gular : — 

News, wages, mathematics (and other names of sci- 
ences ending in ics) , gallows, tidings. United States. 

The following nouns ending in o are made plural by 
adding es to the singular. Thus : — 

Potatoes, tomatoes, mottoes, negroes, mulattoes, tor- 
nadoes, calicoes, cargoes, buffaloes, echoes, heroes, mos- 
quitoes, volcanoes, flamingoes. 

The following by adding ^ only. Thus : — 

Solos, tyros, cantos, stilettos, bravos, duodecimos, 
quartos, octavos, pianos, embryos, oratorios, nuncios, 
folios, grottos, provisos, banjos, mementois, lassos, halos, 
juntos, casinos, dynamos, chromos, vetos. 



76 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGl^. 

WILL, SHALL. 

The nice distinction that should be made between the 
auxiharies zi'ill and shall is now often disregarded. 
SJiall is seldom, if ever, used for zvill, but will for shall. 

Will in the first person expresses a promise, sets forth 
a determination, or the speaker's intention to control 
Thus : 'T 'ivill [I promise to] pay you to-morrow.'' ''I 
zdll [am determined to] be heard in this matter." "We 
zinll [promise to] lend you the team on Monday.'' 

Shall in the first person, and zvill in the second and 
third persons, merely express simple futttrity, or an- 
noimce future action. Thus : 'T shall go to the meet- 
ing to-night." ''I shall be glad to meet your friend." 
"We shall begin to make -hay next week." "Father will 
soon be fifty." "The men zvill get their pay to-night." 
"You zvill find him trustworthy." "He will accompany 
his parents." 

Shall in the second and third persons shows that the 
speaker intends to control. Thus: "You shall give me 
a hearing." "He shall go, rain or shine." "Be assured 
that he shall not see me." "They shall do the chores, 
whether they like to or not." 

Shall is the proper auxiliary in the first person when- 
ever a question is asked. Will must never be used in- 
terrogatively in the first person. ''Shall I help you?" 
"When shall I get well, doctor?" "What time shall we 
get there?" "When shall I see you again?" 

Will, in an interrogative sentence, and having a sub- 
ject in the second person, asks concerning the wish of 
the one addressed. Thus: 'Will you have an orange?" 
"Will you walk with me to the ofiice?" "Will you have 
your sleeping-room heated to-night?" 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 77 

Will, in an interrogative sentence, in the third person, 
asks concerning the purpose or future action of another 
or others. Thus: ''Will they be wilHng to help us?" 
''Will he be there?'' ''How will he carry out his plan?'' 

Shall, in the second person, when a question is asked, 
asks concerning the intention or the future action of 
the one spoken to. Thus : "Shall you go to the city this 
summer?" "Shall you prosecute the offender?" "Shall 
you attend the exercises to-night?" 

Shall, in an interrogative sentence, in the third per- 
son, asks concerning the will or judgment of another. 
Thus: "Shall he come, too?" "Shall they return it to- 
morrow?" 

''Official courtesy, in order to avoid the semblance of 
compulsion," says Mr. Ayres, "conveys its commands in 
the you-zvill form instead of the strictly grammatical 
you-shall form. It says, for example, 'You will pro- 
ceed to Key West, where you will find further instruc- 
tions awaiting you.' " 

Would and should are governed by the same rules as 
zvill and shall. 

To emphasize and clarify these distinctions still 
further, the following illustrative examples are added : — 

1. I will [shall] be eighteen in July. 

2. You shall [will] have a pleasant day for your trip. 

3. When will [shall] we three meet again? 

4. I will [shall] be glad to see you there. 

5. If I do not hasten, I will [shall] be late. 

6. He thinks he shall [will] be able to go, after all. 

7. It is probable that we will [shall] be unable to 
attend. 

8. Will [shall] I have another chance to try? 



78 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

9. I will [shall] be happy to accept your invitation. 

10. I shall [will] not comply. (Determination.) 

11. You will [shall] do what I wish. (Threat.) 

12. I shall [will] go, and nobody will [shall] prevent 
me. 

13. I will [shall] feel greatly obliged if you shall 
[will] tell me. 

14. Shall [will] there be time to call at the office? 

15. I would [should] much prefer to stay at home. 

16. He promised that it would [should] not occur 
again. 

17. I fear that we will [shall] have bad weather. 

18. How will [shall] you go about it? 

19. When will [shall] you begin? 

20. Where will [shall] you be on Sunday? 

21. We would [should] have gone if it had been 
pleasant. 

22. I would [shoiuld] like to go to the beach. 

23. I would [should] go hunting to-day if I were 
home. 

24. I hoped that I would [should] meet him. 

25. I would [should] not like to remain there long, 
and shall [will] not unless compelled to. 

26. I feared that we would [should] have bad weather. 
2y, I would [should] be glad to have you call. 

28. I knew I would [should] dislike teaching. 

29. I would [should] prefer to see it before buying it. 

30. I fear that I will [shall] lose it. 

31. I hope that I will [shall] not have to go alone. 

32. I believe that I will [shall] have the measles. 

33. Shall [will] he be willing to receive us? 

34. You shall [will] find him honest. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 79 

35. If I were he, I would [should] be ashamed to go 
there again. 

36. I shall [will] not disappoint you the next time. 
(Promise.) 

'}^y. I would [should] be obliged if you should [woiuld] 
let me use it. 

38. If we were better, we would [should] be happier. 
Distinguish between : — 

1. You shall (will) know the result by four o'clock. 

2. I shall (will) not hear his explanation. 

3. We will (shall) call to-morrow. 

4. I shall (will) not be the only one to suffer. 

5. Will (shall) there be any extra charge for gym- 
nasium practise? 

6. Do you think I would (should) accept it? 

7. If John would (should) help me, we could finish 
it to-day. 

8. You will (shall) know my decision to-morrow. 

9. If he refused to comply, he would (should) be 
punished. 

10. What did he say the admission would (should) 
be? 

11. They will (shall) not see me. 

12. Mary will (shall) not go. 

13. I will (shall) be the first to make the experiment. 

14. He thought he would (should) be present. 

MAY CAN. 

May expresses permission or probability; can ex- 
presses power. The same distinction must be made be- 
tween might and could. 

Can is often misused for may, and could for might. 



So THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

The proper use of these words is indicated in the ex- 
amples that follow : — 

1. Can [may] I have the use of your pencil for a min- 
ute or two? 

2. Can [may] I have more of the melon, mother? 

3. If I had more to give, I might [could] do more 
for the poor. 

4. Can [may] 1 look through your magazine? 

5. Can [may] I leave my seat for a few minutes? 

6. They said I could [might] sit with you to-day. 

7. Can [may] Arthur and I be excused from the 
physical culture exercises to-day? 

GENERAL TRUTHS. 

General or unchangeable truths should be expressed in 
the present t^nse. Thus : — 

1. It has been proved that the earth was [is] ro<und. 

2. He told me that the cube root of 27 was [is] three. 

3. What did you say your uncle's name was [is] ? 

4. Long ago it was discovered that the cause of the 
tides was [is] the moon. 

5. Many years ag'o I was taught that frost was [is] 
frozen dew. 

6. Ancient philosophers knew that the air had [has] 
weight. 

7. Who did you say it was [is] that you met this 
morning ? 

8. In what State did you say Sioux City was [is] ? 

9. No one in America knew what tea was [is] two 
hundred years ago. 

10. How far did he say it was [is] from New York to 
Boston ? 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 



8i 



11. Plato believed that the soul was [is] immortal. 

12. The ancients believed that the earth was [is] the 
center of the universe. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The subjunctive mode expresses action, being, or state, 
not as a fact, but as something merely thought of. The 
verb in the subjunctive mode does not change its form 
for the person and number of its subject, except for the 
subject thou, in the past tense of the verb he. The con- 
jugation of the verb be m the subjunctive mode differs 
from the conjugation of the same verb in the indicative 
mode, as follows : — 



Present 



Past 



Indicative 


Subjunctive 


Indicative 


Subjunctive 


I am 


If I be 


I was 


If I were 


Thou art 


If thou be 


Thou wast 


If thou 7vert 


He is 


If he be 


He was 


If he were 


We are 


If we be 


We were 


If we were 


You are 


If you be 


You were 


If you were 


They are 


If they be 


They were 


If they were 



A clause containing a verb in the subjunctive mode is 
generally, though not always, introduced by one of the 
conjunctions, if, though, unless, lest, that, and the like. 
The subjunctive mode does not always require a con- 
junction. The clause, 'Tf he had been there," may be 
put thus: ''Had he been there," etc., thus avoiding the 
use of the conjunction if. A wish, which is usually 
expressed subjunctively, is not generally introduced by 
a formal conjunction. 



82 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Remark. — A clause put in the form of a condition, and 
yet expressing a fact, requires the indicative or the poten- 
tial mode. 

The subjunctive mode is most frequently used to ex- 
press : — 

(a) Future contingency: If it rain, we shall not go; 
If I he well, I will [promise] go with you ; Though he 
forsake me, yet will I not forsake him. 

(b) A mere supposition: If I were the chairman, I 
should not entertain such a motion ; If I were not Alex- 
ander, I would be Diogenes. 

(c) A mere wish: I wish I zvere a genius; O, that he 
were here; I wish I were well. 

{d) An intention not yet carried out: The sentence 
is that you he fined one hundred dollars, etc. ; The de- 
cision of the chair is that this question he discussed 
further at our next meeting. 

The following sentences illustrate the uses of the sub- 
junctive mode. The subjunctive verbs are italicized: — 

1. Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him. 

2. I will accommodate you, if I he able. 

3. If I were sure of what you tell me, I should not 
hesitate in the matter. 

4. Though I were to implore his forgiveness, he 
would not grant it. 

5. Were I not your friend, I would not advise you 
as I do. 

6. If Thou hadst hcen here, my brother would not 
have died. 

7. Thy money perish with thee. 

8. If it he possible, as much as lieth in you, live peace- 
ably with all men. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 83 

9. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, 
etc. 

10. If she were going, I would go. 

11. I wish mother zirere at home. 

12. Though I be summoned before the court, I will 
not testify. 

13. Though he zmre the king himself, he could not 
release you. 

14. Had he been prudent, he would not have blun- 
dered. 

15. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

16. Whether she go or stay ^ my plan will not be 
changed. 

17. If the wind blow too hard, we shall capsize. 

18. I should be sorry if John w'ere to fail. 

19. If he promise, he will perform. 

26. If a man smite his servant and he die, he shall 
surely be put to death. 

The clauses in the following sentences are conditional 
only in form; they express facts or actual events, and 
the verb in each clause is therefore in the indicative 
mode. 

1. Though Thackeray zuas born in India, he was not 
a Hindu, but an Englishman. 

2. Though Texas has, of all the States, the greatest 
area, it has by no means the greatest population. 

3. Though Abraham is the father of the faithful, he 
was a man of like passions with ourselves. 

4. If it is raining, I will go anyhow. 

-5. Though Burke was the most learned publicist of 
his day, he was not by nature an orator. 



84 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

6. If books are cheap, a fourth of the people never 
read one. 

THE PRESENT AND THE PERFECT INFINITIVE. 

These two forms of the infinitive must not be con- 
founded. After a verb in the past tense, use the pres- 
ent, not the perfect, infinitive. The sentences below 
indicate this error and its correction : — • 

1. He had intended to have visited [visit] me. 

2. It was the officer's duty to have protected [protect] 
the patrons. 

3. I expected to have written [write] to the proprietor. 

4. We did no more than it was our duty to have done 
[do]. 

5. He went earlier than he expected to have gone [go]. 

6. They intended to have returned [return] in April. 

7. I had hoped to have met [meet] you at the station. 

8. The general intended to have examined [examine] 
the ground before the battle. 

CARE IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The errors miade in the use of prepositions are by no 
means few. That preposition must be selected which 
accords with the noun, adjective, or verb with which it 
is used. Common errors in using prepositions and the 
correction are indicated in the following sentences : — 

1. He is accused with [of] a grave ofifense. 

2. He is too greedy for [of] popularity. 

3. He sympathizes now for [with] his rival. 

4. He bargained about [for] the house for a long 
time. 

5. The decision is acceptable with [to] all the heirs. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 85 

6. Is this disagreeable for [to] you? 

7. There is need for [of] more money. 

8. What greater incentives for [to] his best efforts 
could the boy have? 

9. I connect this line to [with] that. 

10. He is yoked to [with] virtue itself. 

11. May I ask from [of] you a favor? 

12. It is not agreeable for [to] him to meet his former 
comrades. 

13. He is destined for [to] high service. 

14. He is angry with [at] the shameful treatment to 
which he was subjected. 

15. He is angry at [with] his brother. (Angry at a 
thing, zvith a person.) 

16. It is made with [of] the best material. 

17. He frowned on [at] me. He frowned at [on] my 
conduct. 

18. She is possessed with [of] a large estate. 

19. We are witnesses for [to] the truth. 

20. She is careless with [of] her valuables. 

21. They concede with [to] my proposition. 

22. He is emulous for [of] honors. 

23. All students must conform wath [to] the regula- 
tions. 

24. The man grappled at [with] the burglar. 

25. They mingle in [with] good society. 

26. True Christians are assimilated with [to] Christ. 

27. She is descended of [from] a good family. 

28. The moire one gives for [to] this cause, the greater 
will be his reward. 

29. A lazy person is one who has a strong aversion 
from [to] effort of any kind. 



86 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

30. "For my part I can not say that Shelley's poetry, 
except by [in] snatches and fragments, has the value of 
the good work of Wordsworth or Byron." — Matthczv 
Arnold. 

31. I disagree to [with] you. I disagree with [to] 
that statement. 

32. Pure water consists in [of] hydrogen and oxygen. 

33. True greatness consists of [in] character. 

34. I concur with [in] what you say. (Concur with a 
person.) 

35. I correspond once a week to [with] my brother, 
who lives in Boston. 

36. He parted with [from] all his acquaintances. He 
parted from [with] all his property. 

37. She was overwhelmed by [with] grief. The de- 
tachment of soldiers was overwhelmed with [by] the 
enemy. 

38. He was killed with [by] the sword. He was killed 
by [with] dissipation. 

39. I differ with [from] you in size or in complexion. 
I differ either from or zvith [the latter preferable] you 
in opinion or judgment. 

40. He divided his property between [among] his five 
sons. 

41. He divided his property among [between] his two 
sons. 

42. He has not yet succeeded in reconciling his practise 
to [with] his theory. 

43. Sinners become reconciled with [to] God. 

44. He dissents with [from] my opinion. 

45. The President was accompanied with [by] the 
members of his cabinet. We are happy when accom- 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX, 87 

panied by [with] noble thoughts. The music was not 
accompanied by [with] the words. 

46. The farmers were almost penniless, as the bad sea- 
son had disappointed them with [of] their crops. 

47. I was disappointed of [with] the book; it came 
short of my expectations. 

48. Life is often compared with [to] a river. 

49. My hat does not compare to [with] yours in 
quality. 

50. He jumped from the fence in [into] the water. 

51. The teacher became impatient at [with] the pupil. 

52. The audience became impatient with [at] the delay. 

53. We must attend upon [to] our lessons. 

54. The guard attended to [upon] the king. The serv- 
ant attends to [upon] his master. 

55. He was vexed at [with] me. He was vexed with 
[at] my conduct. 

56. He remonstrates against [with] me. He remon- 
strates with [against] my mode of procedure. 

57. He lives in [at] Hydesville; lives in Scotland, or 
London, or Chicago. 

58. He was seized with [by] a policeman. He was 
seized by [with] pneumonia. 

59. He smiled at [on] the child's sweet innocence. He 
smiled on [at] my awkwardness. 

60. They laughed at [with] me, because of my good 
fortune. They laughed with [at] me because of my 
crude mistakes. 

61. He frowned on [at] me. He frowned at [on] my 
ill behavior. 

Remark. — ''Some authorities object to the use of a 
preposition as the final word of a sentence, but such 



88 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

usage is in accord with the genius of all the Teutonic 
languages." — Standard Dictionary. 

The nicest judgTuent, however, is necessary in deter- 
mining whether the sentence would be improved or im- 
paired by placing the preposition at the close of the 
sentence. Seldom, if ever, should such phrases as, at 
least, at any rate, at all events, in short, in truth, in fact, 
to be sure, etc., be placed at the close of a sentence. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF FAULTY SYNTAX, WITH 
CORRECTIONS INDICATED. 

The student should give a reason for each correction. 

1. I will [shall] be a hundred miles from home by 
to-morrow. 

2. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight [de- 
lights] some people. 

3. They hoped that this would happen to you and 
I [me]. 

4. The gentlemen and carriages which [that] we saw 
have disappeared. 

5. It has been declared that the earth did [does] not 
move around the sun. 

6. The number of inhabitants in the State have [has] 
greatly increased in the last decade. 

7. He laid [lay] down in the shade where we formerly 
had set [sat]. 

8. The mechanism of clocks were [was] totally un- 
known a few centuries ago. 

9. One of the most trying things that is [are] known 
to life, is to suffer alone and unjustly. 

10. If you wish, I shall [will] visit you. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 89 

11. Neither of the adventurers saw their [his] native 
land again. 

12. He sat [set] the cage down, and the bird cried be- 
tween [after] each mouthful, 'Tolly wants a cracker." 

13. Try and [to] remember all these rules. 

14. Will [shall] you be likely to meet the town 
marshal ? 

15. Of the two horses, the smallest [smaller] is the most 
[more] valuable. 

16. Every one of the boys tell [tells] the same story. 

17. What did you say was [is] the capital of Idaho? 

18. If any pupil does not know the reason, they [he] 
should say so. 

19. Us [we] boys are organizing a reading circle. 

20. Everybody says that they [he] never before saw 
such a neat [so neat a] housekeeper. 

21. No news have [has] yet been received from the 
seat of war. 

22. How does my coat set [sit] across the shoulders? 

23. These plants belong to different genuses [genera]. 

24. That appears to be the most universal [general] 
opinion. 

25. How different this climate is to [from] what we 
expected. 

26. Cut a sheet of paper in [into] four equal pieces. 

27. What village was [is] that we just passed through? 

28. If any one wishes to see me, let them [him] call 
after one o'clock. 

29. Though he reproves [reprove] me, yet will I honor 
him. 

30. Unless he takes [take] better care of his health, he 
will not live long. 



90 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

31. Can [may] I have the key to the book-room? 

32. Every intelHgent student ought to use their [his] 
influence in behalf of such a scheme. 

33. If it don't [doesn't] come before night, I shall 
have to go for it myself. 

34. He said that he had lain [laid] the book on the 
table. 

35. He would allov^ no one to open their [his] eyes 
while at prayers. 

36. Neither he nor his father were [was] educated 
[trained] to be lawyers [a lawyer]. 

37. The old method is quite different in character than 
[from] that now in use. 

38. I confided the secret in [to] my brother. 

39. Happy the teacher whose pupils confide to [in] 
him. 

40. The conspirators confided the execution of their 
plot in [to] the oldest of their number. 

41. He may return by to-morrow, but we can not wait 
on [for] him. 

42. His memoranda is [are] intensely interesting. 

43. I found not less [fewer] than ten mistakes in it. 

44. I wish it wasn't [were not] so far to town. 

45. It makes no difference whom [who] you thought 
it was [is]. 

46. He said he would vote for whoever [whomever] 
the convention would nominate. 

47. No one could act fairer [more fairly] than her 
[she] . 

48. Ch in chaise have [has] the sound of sh. 

49. What kind of a [expunge a] noun did you say 
virtue was [is] ? 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 9 1 

50. Blozv is used both as a transitive and [insert an\ 
intransitive verb. 

51. Was it a man [man's] or a woman's voice that we 
heard ? 

52. Neither you nor I are [am] in the wrong. 

53. That's the pupil whom [who] most of them 
thought would get the prize. 

54. Nobody but you and Tom were [was] in the room 
since. 

55. She spoke so slow and distinct [slowly and dis- 
tinctly] that I caught every word. 

56. You can [may] take any book that you find lay- 
ing [lying] on the table. 

57. Be sure and [to] find out why he did not come. 

58. Are [is] either of these towns marked on the latest 
maps ? 

59. Do you know who [whom] he thought her to be? 

60. This is one of the few subjects that seems [seem] 
to be given due attention in the schools. 

61. The mishap is likely to be attended by [with] 
serious consequences. 

62. The candidates were very liberal with [of] prom- 
ises before the election. 

63. I shall divide it in [into] four equal parts. 

64. The judge said he could not entirely acquit the de- 
fendant from [of] blame. 

65. How do you reconcile this assertion to [with] your 
previous one? 

66. How many is [are] there? 

67. No matter how many there was [were]. 

68. Every leaf, every bud, and every drop of water 
teem [teems] with life. 



92 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

69. This is one of the best treatises on money and 
coins that has [have] appeared in any language. 

70. Each boy and each girl were [was] commended. 

71. Let them depend each on their [his] own efforts. 
J2. If the farm was [were] larger, I would sell it. 

73. Serious injuries seldom or [if] ever occur in the 
game. 

74. Which is the chea^pest [cheaper], to go by Omaha 
or by Kansas City? 

75. How will [shall] I know who [whom] to look to? 

76. It was Bacon's intention to have dedicated [dedi- 
cate] it to Prince Henry. 

yy. I suppose it doesn't really deceive people any more 
than ''Arabian Nights" or ''Gulliver's Travels" do [does]. 

78. And who [whom] do you think I saw standing 
upon the bridge? 

79. Any thief, ... be he whom [who] he may, 
should be hung [hanged]. 

80. An Irishman who [whom], like Priestly, the Re- 
publicans delighted to honor. 

81. Among the numerous events which are [is] each 
in their [its] turn the most direful and melancholy. 

82. "Neither Pope nor Council are [is] on a level with 
the Apostles." — /. H. Newman. 

83. The soldiers look superbly [superb] in their new 
uniforms. 

84. Let his colaborers be whom [who] they may. 

85. I do not know as [that] I can recall his statement. 

86. More than one failure has [have] resulted from 
carelessness. 

87. Sufficient data has [have] been given to solve it. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 93 

88. I meant to have given [give] you several of those, 
[that] kind of questions. 

89. I mean Noah Webster, he [him] who wrote the 
dictionary. 

90. The rod he used was abdut that [so] long. 

91. He found the river had raised [risen] several 
inches. 

92. He evidently didn't know what it was [is] to be 
afraid. * 

93. She surely don't [doesn't] expect to tell who 
[whom] I got it from. 

94. ''It is stronger and in every way superior to the 
other one/' should be, 'Tt is stronger than the other one, 
and in every way superior to it." 

95. The Prime Minister, with the Lord Chief Justice, 
were [was] admitted to the King's presence. 

96. I am one of those persons who [that] can not de- 
scribe what I [they] have not seen. 

97. He is a person whom [who] we all know will 
represent the college with honor. 

98. Four elephant proboscises [proboscides] were un- 
earthed. 

99. ''He lives as far, if not farther, from the city as 
you do," should be, "He lives as far from the city as you 
do, if not farther." 

100. The state of things is this : That there is [are] 
more than one Christian college in the State, and that 
more than one Christian college is [are] needed. 

Distinguish between : — 

I. The tailor and clothier, 
and 
The tailor and the clothier. 



94 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

2. I found the way easy, 

and 
I found the way easily. 

3. She sings as well as plays, 

and 
She sings as well as she plays. 

4. William and Henry's books, 

and 
William's and Henry's books. 

5. Few are qualified to serve, 

and 
A few are qualified to serve. 

6. Do you think I would accept it? 

and 
Do you think I should accept it? 

7. Just think of him engaging in such work, 

and 
Just think of his engaging in such work. 

8. Much depends on the teacher grading the papers, 

and 
Much depends on the teacher's grading the papers. 

9. I remember an anecdote of the Judge that may in- 

terest you, 
and 
I remember an anecdote of the Judge's that may 
interest you. 

10. She merely glanced at the answer, 
and 
She glanced at the answer merely. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 95 

11. If he has it, he will give it to you, 

and 
If he have it, he will give it to you. 

12. Even Father offered to help, 

and 
Father even offered to help. 

13. The teacher took great pains to explain everything, 

and 
The teacher took great pains in explaining every- 
thing. 

14. She was the greatest actor of her day, 

and 
She was the greatest actress of her day. 

15. If he goes, I go, 

and 
If he go, I shall go. 

16. The fourth and last volume, 

and 
The fourth and the last volume. 

17. Half a dollar, 

and 
A half dollar. 

18. Yoiu will know the result to-morrow, 

and 
You shall know the result to-morrow. 

19. He taught there for twenty years, 

and 
He has taught there for twenty years. 



96 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

20. I shall not be the only one to suffer loss, 
and 
I will not be the only one to suffer loss. 

THE CRITICS vs. USAGE. 

Dr. Brainerd Kellogg, in his 'Text-Book on Rhetoric," 
cites quite a long list of words and phrases that, used in 
a certain sense, have always been condemned by writers 
on grammar and rhetoric, but which are abundantly 
sanctioned by the practise of the ^'best authors, British 
and Amicrican, now living, or, if dead, living until re- 
cently/' "We have carefully read fifty of these authors,'' 
continues Dr. Kellogg, ''and read three hundred pages 
of each. Just what these men by habitual use teach on 
these points and what they thus declare to be good 
English we have noted. 

"It is in place here under the head of Propriety, to 
speak of a few of the words and phrases which usage 
says we may employ, but which these critics tell us we 
may not, must not, use. We wish that the corrections 
here made might spread as widely as the errors taught 
have extended." 

Agreeably with Professor Kellogg's "wish," I give 
below the results of his investigation : — 

1. We may use such before an adjective and its noun, 
even when such does not modify the noun alone; we are 
not restricted to so in such cases. 

Such a valuable answer. — Tennyson. Surprise at such un- 
welcome news. — Froude. 

2. We may use each other when speaking of more than 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 97 

two objects; we are not restricted to one another in such 
cases. 

The three modes of shaping a proposition, distinct as they 
are from from each other, follow each other in natural se- 
quence. — J. H. Newman. Concourse of the various faculties 
of the mind with each other. — Walter Pater. 

3. We may use one another when speaking of two 
objects; but we are not restricted to one another in such 
cases. 

The two armies failed to find one another. — J. R. Green. 
How do the mind and the universe communicate with one an- 
other f — Mar tine au. 

4. We may use a great deal, a great many, or a good 
deal, a good many. Usage is equally divided between 
the two forms. 

Means a great deal. — E. A. Freeman. A great many authors 
live because, etc.— Lowell. A good many things have gone out 
with the fire on the hearth. — C. D. Warner. Detained before 
the eye a good deal longer. — De Quincey. 

5. We may use which with a clause for its antecedent. 

On these subjects they are devoid of the false pretensions 
of the upper class, which is an unspeakable comfort. — P. G. 
Hamerton. If Oldys meant the last Duke of Buckingham, 
which is possible. — R. G. White. 

6. We may use zvhether when three or more objects are 
spO'ken of; it is not restricted to two. 

Whether as a citizen, a patriot, or a practical philosopher. — 
Everett. Whether grim, grotesque, whimsical, or playfully af- 
fectionate. — Minto. Whether art or science, or practical craft. 
— Dean Church. 



98 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

7. We uiay use the conjunctions either and neither 
when speaking of three or more obj ects ; we need not 
restrict them to two. 

Neither Lear nor Othello nor Macbeth nor Hamlet is so 
typically perfect a tragedy as the Agamemnon. — Fr. Harrison. 
By either Marlowe, Greene, Peele, or Shakespeare. — R. G. White. 

8. We may use the adjective pronoun either or neither 
when speaking of three or more objects; we are not re- 
stricted to any or none in such cases. 

There is little or no reference, in either of the three parts, to 
the dialogue. — Verplanck. And so neither [of three families] 
can have precedence. — Higginson. The decision may come in 
either of many modes. — Prof. Wm. James. 

9. We may use both or all with of and its noun after it. 
They need not be adjectives belonging to nouns or pro- 
nouns, though this is their more common use. 

For all of them the Greek had only elegiacs. — A. Lang. 
There is enough of him for both of us. — Everett. 

10. We may use either in the sense of each. 

He saw the land swiftly receding on either side. — Irving. A 
long beach terminated by craggy rocks at either end. — Haw- 
thorne. 

11. We may use the forms any or every or no or some 
one else's, or any or every or no or somebody else's. 
There is very little authority for putting the 's upon one 
or body. 

My happiness is no more desirable than anybody else's. — 

Martineau. Fight in some one else's quarrel. — Wm. Black. 

Our faith is apt to be a faith in some one else's faith. — Wm. 
James. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. 99 

12. We may use 7^on^ in the singular and in the plural. 

But W6>w^ of those who laugh at him possess a tithe of his 
sensibihty. — Macaulay. None has always so acute a sense. — 
Lowell. 

13. We may use some, with numerals, in the sense of 
about. 

Some six years ago or more. — Carlyle. Some thirty horse- 
men dashed through the gate. — Bulwer. 

14. We may use the form seen in is being bviilt, was 
being built, to denote continuing action in the passive. 
We are not restricted to the form seen in is building, was 
building. 

The point on which the battle ivas being fought. — Froude. 
Which is being done by means of it. — J. Morley. While it was 
being prepared, ... he stayed at Bath. — J. A. Symonds. 

15. We may use the with a participle and its object. 
We are not compelled to place the object after a preposi- 
tion. 

Modification is properly the bringing a thing into a certain 
mode. — Hamilton. The making himself drunk ... is a 
crime against others. — Mill. Poltroonery is the acknowledging 
an inferiority to be incurable. — Emerson. 

16. We may use between when speaking of three or 
more objects; we are not restricted to among in such 
cases. This use of between is favored by the great dic- 
tionaries, and can be traced all the way back into Anglo- 
Saxon. 

The intercommunications between the eye, the ear, and the 
tail were of the oddest and the strangest. — Dr. John Brown, 
i he family likeness betzveen the nine is so strong. — Marsh. 
And they three were the dragon, the lion, and the wolf, which 

L.ofC. 



lOO THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

should divide the reahii bctzveen them. — Holinshed. The ge- 
netic relationship claimed to exist between the five great branches 
of the Scythian family. — W. D. Whitney. 

ly. We may follow the indefinite adjective pronoun 
one by a personal pronoun or a noun used in place of 
one; we need not repeat the one. 

To have seen a numerous household assembled round the 
fire, one would have imagined that he v^as transported back to 
those happy days. — Irving. To v^alk staunchly by the best 
light one has . . . — this is the discipline by which alone 
man is enabled to rescue his life from thraldom. — M. Arnold. 

1 8. We may use had rather , had better, before the in- 
finitive; we need not say would rather, would better, in- 
stead. This is common usage from before Shakespeare 
and all the way down. 

He had better go to an old curiosity shop on High Street. — 
Hawthorne. I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend 
and the Talmud and the Alcoran. — Bacon. We had better seek 
for a system which will develop honest men. — Ruskin. 

19. We may use get in other senses than to ''express 
attainment by exertion.'' It may oe used with have to 
indicate (i) possession, and (2) necessity; without have, 
(3) as a causal, (4) in the sense of become, to indicate 
(5) real movement, and (6) figurative movement. 

What large eyes you have got, what large teeth you have got. 
— Thackeray. We have got to learn that statesmanship is the 
most complicated of all arts. — Lowell. They are the most easy 
to get obeyed. — Bagehot. Emerson got wet and chilled. — 
Holmes. Adam got down from his horse.— G^or^^ Eliot. 
How the Jews got on under the Mosaic law. — Stedman. 

20. We may use at length instead of at last. 

At length we can no longer touch the metal with impunity. 



SLIPS IN SYNTAX. lOI 

— Tyndall. The leader at length arose. — Macaulay. At length 
Richard trembles on the brink of annihilation. — Dowden, The 
mental force which originates exact thinking will at length com- 
mand exact expression. — Prof. Phelps. Till at length we 
reached the Blue Hills. — Everett. 

21. We may use at best; we need not say at the best. 

Or at best but the devil's elixir. — Longfellow. Saw himself 
at best but the chief of some wandering horde. — Prescott. They 
are at best . . . but the insufficient representatives of the 
spirit of the time. — Buckle. 

22. We may use the phrase at all. 

I must have slept on it or not slept at all. — Daniel Webster. 
No eye at all is better than an evil eye. — Dickens. If certified 
at all. — Hadley. If it has any meaning at all. — Huxley. In 
point of naked syntactical accuracy the English of America is 
not at all inferior to that of England. — Marsh. 

23. We may use consider with the meaning of deem, 
think, regard; we need not restrict it to the sense oif 
ponder, deliberate. 

She considered him a renegade. — Motley. He considered it 
his duty to criticize Radicals. — Minto. 

24. We may use just to denote time and in the sense 
of recently; we need not restrict it to mean exactly, pre- 
cisely, only. 

He had just been so indignantly and rhetorically denying. — 
Motley. Which had just been cleansed by a snow-storm. — 
Tyndall. 

25. We may use quite with the meaning very, rather; 
we need not use it only in the sense of completely. 

Which is quite closely allied to one of the more common 
forms of insanity. — Plamerton. Quite early in English litera- 
ture. — Marsh. He was quite a lion. — John Fiske. Quite or- 
dinary humanity. — Walter Pater. 



I02 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

These are a few of the words and phrases respecting 
which usage and certain critics are at variance— usage 
allowing what they forbid. We say allozving, for the 
expressions which we here claim may be used are found 
in great abundance in the authors we have read. Those 
expressions for which no alternatives are given by us are 
those commonly employed ; of the alternative expressions 
we may say that the one condemned is more often the 
one especially favored by usage. 



PART III. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITALS. 

1. Begin with a capital the first word of every sentence. 

2. Begin with a capital the first word of every line of 
poetry. 

3. Begin with a capital all proper nouns, and words 
directly derived from proper nouns; as, — 

James G. Blaine; Baltimore; a Danish explorer; a 
Canadian merchant; Cuban women. 

4. Begin with a capital all nouns ''so strongly personi- 
fied as to produce in the mind a distinct image of a per- 
son '/' as, — 

The Sun pillows his chin upon an orient wave. 
The Breeze comes whispering to our ear. 
'Tis true; Flattery spits her poison at the mightiest 
peers. 

5. Begin with a capital every name and title of the 
Deity ; as, — 

Thy mercies, how tender, our Maker, Defender, Re- 
deemer, and Friend. 

The Most High; the Creator and Redeemer; Em- 
manuel. 

(103) 



I04 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

6. Begin with a capital titles of honor, and official 
titles, especially when they precede a name, or are applied 
to a particular person ; as, — • 

/ sazv Mayor Pheian. Did you see Governor Bliss and 
Professor Seott on the platform f 

7. Begin with capitals the names of the days of the 
week and the names of the months of the year. 

8. Begin with a capital the names of the Bible and of 
any of its books ; as, — 

The Holy Scriptures; the Epistle to the Galatians. 

9. The nouns north, east, so^Uh, west, when applied to 
parts of a country, should begin with a capital; as, — 

The products of the South; the mild climate of the far 
West. 

10. Begin with a capital the names of religious sects, 
of political parties, and of organized bodies generally; 
as, — ■ 

He is a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
In the recent elections the Republicans were generally 
successful. 

11. Begin with a capital important words in the title 
of a book, or in the title of any other composition ; as, — 

''A Guide to the Study of our Common Birds/' is 
recent book. 

12. Begin with a capital the names of important his- 
torical events and epochs ; as, — 

The Middle Ages; the Crusades; the Reformation. 

13. Begin with a capital words denoting family rela- 
tions, such as father, mother, uncle, etc., when they are 
used with the proper name of the persons, or without a 
possessive pronoun ; as, — • 

This watch zvas a present from Aunt Alice. I have 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. I05 

had a letter from Father; or, / have had a letter from my 
father, 

*I4. Begin with capitals the words mountain, river , 
street J etc., when they are used in connection with their 
proper names ; as, — 

The Columbia River, He lives on Chestnut Street. 

15. The pronoun / and the interjection O should al- 
ways be capitals. 

16. Begin with a capital every direct quotation or that 
which resembles a quotation; as, — 

Lord Bacon said, ''Writing maketh an exact man.'' 
Let me repeat it, Devote yourself to the good of hu- 
manity. 

17. Begin with a capital the first word of a Resolution, 
an Enactment, or a Full Example; as, — 

Resolved, That we humbly petition the Board of Super- 
visors, etc. 

Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Ohio, 
That on and after January i, ip02, etc. 

Remarks. — Personal pronouns that refer to the Deity 
are now usually capitalized. 

Some words derived originally from proper nouns, 
have, by long usage, lost all reference to their origin, 
and hence are written with small initial letters ; as, 
simony, currant, artesian, laconic, milliner, solecism, etc. 

All who have had considerable experience in writing 
know that there are many constructions where the use 
or .non-use of capitals is solely a matter of taste. 

The tendency to use italics sparingly is becoming more 
and more marked. Inexperienced writers are prone to 



■^The publishers of most newspapers and of other periodicals 
ignore this rule. 



Io6 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

capitalize and italicize too much. Skill in the use of cap- 
itals and italics can be acquired by extended observation 
and practise only. 

PUNCTUATION. 

The importance of punctuation can hardly be over- 
stated. It is an indispensable help in making clear what 
one writes. It is the art of dividing written discourse 
into sentences and shorter sections in such a manner as 
to make obvious to the eye their grammatical relations 
and dependence. Though no two writers punctuate just 
alike, still there are rules on punctuation that are com- 
paratively fixed, and observed by all reputable authors. 
Rules and directions can only facilitate the process of 
mastering the art. One is not a master of the art until 
he punctuates correctly from sheer habit — automatically. 
A master punctuates without thinking of the rules, for 
he is himself the rules — and vastly more — incarnate. 
Here, as elsewhere, patient observation and persistent 
practise are the ladder by which we rise to the plane of 
mastery. 

THE PERIOD. 

1. The Period should be placed at the end of every 
declarative and every imperative sentence ; as, — 

'Tn the beginning God created the heaven and the 
earth." 

''Use your wit as a buckler, not as a sword." 

2. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a 
Period ; as, — ■ 

Jas. A. Garfield ; Prof. R. G. Moulton, A. M., Ph. D. ; 
Me., Mo., Pa., La., etc. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. I07 

Remark. — When shortened forms of proper names and 
other nouns become current, they no longer require a 
period after them. Some of them are, Tom, Bill, Ben, 
Will, Sue, bus (omnibus), cab (cabriolet), Jap (Japa- 
nese), etc. 

3. A Period is usually placed after each Roman 
numeral; as, — 

Edward VII. ; Chapters X., XL, and XII. 

Remark. — When the Arabic figures i, 2, 3, etc., are 
used to number a series of divisions or parts, each figure 
is followed by a period. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

1. The Interrogation Point must be placed after every 
direct question ; as, — • 

Who art thou? What can I do for you? 
The question mark should not follow an indirect ques- 
tion ; as, — 

He asked me what I thought of the lecture. 

2. When a sentence consists of two or more parts, each 
of which is a distinct question, the interrogation point 
should follow each part ; as, — 

What is the meaning of all this excitement? of all this 
confusion ? of all this tumult ? 

If, however, a question is not complete until the close 
of the sentence, an interrogation point should be inserted 
only at the end of the sentence; as, — 

Who was the older, Bismarck or Gladstone? 

3. To express doubt as to the accuracy of a statement, 
an interrogation point inclosed in curves, is placed after 
it ; as, — • 



I08 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

1328 ( ?) was the year in which Chaucer was born. 

Sometimes the enclosed question-mark tinges the doubt 
with irony; as, — 

The honorable ( ?) gentleman is now enjoying the com- 
forts of a penitentiary. 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

A word, a phrase, or a sentence that expresses strong 
emotion is followed by an Exclamation Point ; as, — 

"How amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts !" 
Ps. 84: I. 

''Rouse, ye Romans ! rouse, ye slaves V 

''Alas V said he with a sigh. 

Oh! how you startled me! 

The interjection is not always immediately followed by 
the exclamation point. Example : — 

Oh, what a cruel fate is mine ! 

Prof. J. M. Hart says : "The use of the ( !) is much 
less subject to rule than the use of the ( ?).'' I am safe 
in saying that where one writer would place the excla- 
mation point immediately after the interjection, another 
might use the point only at the end of the sentence, and 
insert a comma after the interjection. Professor Hart 
continues : "The best advice that one can give to the 
young is to be very sparing in the use of the sign of ex- 
clamation. Use the sign only when you are fully con- 
scious that your feeling is intense, or that you are directly 
addressing some person or some personified object. A 
composition dotted over with ( !!) is evidence of mental 
hysteria ; to correct such writing is, for the sober-minded 
teacher, a personal grievance." 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. IO9 

COMMA. 

The least degree of separation in the division of a sen- 
tence is marked by a comma. 

There is a growing disposition to disuse the comma 
in many cases where it was formerly employed. 

Books printed to-day have fewer commas to the page 
than have those printed fifty years ago. Many of the 
rules on the use of the comma are not a little flexible. 
But formal directions are at least helpful. 
_i. Nouns that are independent by address, with their 
modifying words, are set ofif from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a comma or by commas ; as, — 

Come, Anthony, and young Octamus, come! Good- 
morning, sir; I am glad to see you. I dare not, my dear 
friend, comply with your request. My son, give me thine 
heart. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky. Hail, O 
king! O velvet hee, you're a dusty fellow. Ye Crags 
and Peaks, Vm with you once again. 

If strong emotion is expressed by the noun or phrase 
of address, the exclamation point may be used instead 
of the comma. 

2. Words and phrases used parenthetically must be set 
ofif by commas ; as, — 

In short. Master Edward bade fair to be a literary 
wonder. The stranger, however, quickened his horse to 
an equal pace. Well, do as you think best. Again, let 
us consider the consequences of this conduct. In truth, 
much may be said in favor of his proposal. The loco- 
motive bellows, as it were, from the fury of passion. He 
went home, accordingly, and arranged his afifairs in the 
manner described. The affair passed ofif to your satis- 



no THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

faction, 7/(7 doubt. The man was, to be sure, rather con- 
ceited. It is mind, after all, which does the work of the 
world. Come, then, let us reason together. Thou know- 
est, eome n^hat may, that the light of truth can never be 
put out. But, on the other hand, do not presume too 
much. No nation, in short, is free from danger. On the 
other hand, there is great clanger in delay. Besides, it 
may promote the healthfulness of the town. 

The phrases commonly employed in a parenthetical 
sense, are the following : — 

As it were, in short, to be sure, 

as it ha'ppens, in truth, in the meantime, 

after all, in a word, on the contrary, 

beyond question, in fact, on the other hand, 

in reality, in fine, in the first place, 

without doubt, for the most part, to be brief, 

of course, generally speaking, in general, 

no doubt, now and then, 

The words so employed are: — 

Therefore, moreover, then, 

indeed, accordingly, however, ~" 

consequently, finally, too, 

namely, doubtless, thus, 

besides, lastly, again, 

first, secondly, thirdly, etc. 

Most of these words are susceptible of two construc- 
tions. Where they distinctly modify a particular word, 
they are not parenthetical, and must not be cut off by 
commas. Some writers do not isolate all of these words, 
even when they are parenthetical. The comma is often 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. Ill 

omitted in the case of too, also, therefore, and perhaps; 
especially when they are so introduced as not to interfere 
with the harmonious flow of the sentence, and when the 
sentence is short. 

3. Closely akin to parenthetical expressions, are what 
are usually called intermediate expressions. They are 
clauses or phrases that come between the essential parts 
of a sentence, as between subject and predicate, between 
the verb and its object, or between the parts of a quota- 
tion. These expressions should be isolated by commas. 
Examples : — 

Truth, like gold, shines brighter by collision. Charity, 
on zvhatever side zve contemplate it, is one of the rarest 
of Christian graces. One hour a day, steadily given to a 
particular study, will bring in time astonishing results. 
Christianity is, in a most important sense, the religion of 
hope. Prudence, as zvell as courage, is necessary to suc- 
cess in life's conflict. Phrases and clauses, when not re- 
strictive, are set off by commas. Nature, through all her 
works, delights in variety. The brightest pupils may, 
from zvant of application, fail to attain the highest suc- 
cess. Study, regarded as a means of culture merely, is 
valuable. ^ 'There is no flock, however zvatched and 
tended, but' one dead lamb is there.'' — Longfellow. I 
have endeavored, in my previous lectures, to show the 
falsity of some current maxims. ''Let me make the bal- 
lads of a nation," said Fletcher of Saltoun, "and I care 
not who makes its laws." 

An intermediate phrase may be restrictive, i. e,, insep- 
arable in thoiught from what precedes ; in that case it is 
not set off; as. The man zvith a zvhite heard is my uncle. 
The tree hy the bridge w^,s blown down last night. 



112 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

4. Phrases and clauses which, by transposition, are 
placed at the beginning of sentences, are usually followed 
by commas ; as, — 

Of all the senses, sight is perhaps the most useful. 
Wearied by his long stay in London, Irving started for 
a tour on the continent. To make this point clear, let 
me relate an anecdote. Of all English essayists, h^mh 
is the most admired. // his illustrations are homely, his 
arguments are strong. Above, the highway on a mossy 
bridge strode o'er it. To govern for a moment, he be- 
trays a sacred trust. To the wise and good, old age 
presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment. In order to su'c- 
ceed in study, one must be able to concentrate his atten- 
tion. When Jesus returned to Galilee, the people went 
out to greet Him. To put it in round numbers, there are 
76,000,000 people in the Uniited States. To be frank 
with you, I have no confidence in your scheme. To tell 
the truth, I can not understand him. To speak plainly, 
I did not enjoy the lecture. To supply the deficiency, he 
resorted to trickery. Awkzmrd in person, he was ill 
adapted to gain respect. 

5. A noun or pronoun modified by a participle or a 
participial phrase, but filling no other grammatical office 
in the sentence, is said to be in the nominative case abso- 
lute. Such nouns or pronouns are, with their accom- 
panying words, set off by a comma or commas ; as, Our 
soldiers having reached the bridge, the enemy fired upon 
them. Then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood 
in their midst. Shame lost, all virtue is lost. His father 
being dead, the prince assumed the crown. The morn- 
ing studies being over, the boys started to gather wild 
flowers. Night coining on, we pitched our tent. The 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. II 3 

sea being smooth, we went for a sail. Uncle James lay 
down, his heart being heavy with sorrozv. I being in the 
way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's 
brother. 

6. Adjective clauses that are not restrictive, or that do 
not point out, must be set off by commas ; as, — 

My father, who heard the noise, stole quietly to the 
window. Books, zuhich are the repositories of knowl- 
edge, should be found in every household. Man, zvho is 
formed in the image of his Maker, is the paragon of ani- 
mals. The eye, zvhich sees all things, is unseen to itself. 
I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which lie did 
thrice refuse. Ichabod, zvho had no relish for this strange 
midnight companion, now quickened his steed. 

Here are a few examples of restrictive relative 
clauses : — 

Men who are industrious are generally prosperous. 
The man zvho had first spoken made a second speech. 
A teacher must love a pupil who is docile. The spirit 
zvhich actuated him was avarice. The powers which nozv 
move the world are steam and electricity. The things 
xvhieh are seen are temporal. The hand that made us is 
divine. He that loveth Me shall be loved of My Father. 

Explanation. — A relative clause is restrictive when it 
limits the meaning of its antecedent tO' some particular 
sense. Thus : ''The things which are seen are temporal." 
Here it is not ''the things" merely, but "the things which 
are seen," that is the subject of "are temporal." Not 
all things are temporal ; but only those which are seen. 
A separation of the relative clause from "things" would 
destroy the sense. The clause is therefore restrictive ; it 
limits the meaning to that particular kind of things. 



114 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

A non-restrictive clause is really equivalent to an addi- 
tional thought. In the sentence, ''Ichabod, who had no 
relish for this strange midnight companion^ nov^ quick- 
ened his steed/' the clause is non-restrictive, the sentence 
being equivalent to ''Ichabod nov^ quickened his steed/' 
and the additional statement, ''Ichabod had no relish for 
this strange midnight companion. ' The relative clause 
does not limit the sense of the predicate to a particular 
Ichabod, in distinction to other Ichabods. As a rule, a 
relative clause is not restrictive when the relative pronoun 
means and he, and it, etc., hut he, hnt it, etc. ; as, "Icha- 
bod, zvho ( = and he )^ had no relish for this strange mid- 
night companion, quickened his steed." 

There are some apparent exceptions to rule 6, as fol- 
lows : — 

If several words come between the relative pronoun 
and its antecedent, a comma should precede the relative 
clause, even when used restrictively ; as, ''He does his 
work best, who thoroughly enjoys it." 

When the relative pronoun refers to several nouns or 
pronouns as antecedents, the relative clause, though re- 
strictive, is preceded by a comma ; as, "He had hopes/ 
fears, and longings, which his friends could not share." 

The relative clause, whether restrictive or not, is pre- 
ceded by a comma, if the relative pronoun is immediately 
followed by a word or a phrase enclosed in commas ; as, 
"Those friends, who, in the native vigor of his pozvers, 
perceived the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were 
at length rewarded." 

The principle stated in rule 6, applies with equal force 
to restrictive and to non-restrictive participial phrases. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. II5 

Here are several sentences containing non-restrictive par- 
ticipial phrases. Note the punctuation. 

The strong man, trusting m himself, forgets caution. 
On the side of the hill, lay a large park, reaching down 
to the river. They, fearing an attack, slept on their arms. 
Alexander, springing to the hack of Bucephalus, soon 
tamed him. Alexander, having conquered the world, 
wept for more worlds to conquer. 

The following sentences contain restrictive participial 
phrases : — 

A purse Ulled with gold was presented to the brave 
fireman. The images carved on the ceiling were overlaid 
with gold. The man talking to Father is a peddler. The 
books lying on the table belong to the teacher. The lec- 
ture given by Mr. Parker was highly praised. 

7. Words and phrases in pairs should have a comma 
inserted after each pair ; as. 

Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and 
enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in 
public transactions. Rich and poor, weak and strong, 
young and old, must respond to Death's summons. Sink 
or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand 
and my heart to this vote. Old and young, rich and poor, 
wise and foolish, were involved, 

8. Words in apposition, together with their modifiers, 
should be set off by commas ; also a title or a degree fol- 
lowing the name of a person is set off from the name by 
a comma; as, 

John Fiske, the philosopher and historian, was a pro- 
lific writer. Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, was a 
cynic. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 
comes dancing from the east. Paul, the apostle of the 



Il6 THF ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE, 

Gentiles, was boro at Tarsus. And he, their prince, 
shall rank among my peers. ''Earth's noblest thing, a 
limnan perfeetedf' — Lozvell Albert N. Raub, A. M., 
Ph. D., is the author of many school text-books. 

In such constructions as the following, the commas are 
not used : The poet Lowell was an eminent linguist. Paul 
the apostle was an aggressive missionary. Un'cle James 
lives in the city. The Empress Victoria was exceedingly 
popular. 

9. Words or phrases that are emphatically distin- 
guished must be separated by commas ; as, — 

We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; 
in feelings, not in figures on a dial. Though deep, yet 
clear; though gentle, yet not dull. Though black, yet 
comely; and though rash, beiugn. Liberal, not lavish, 
is kind Nature's hand. Truth is not a stagnant pool, but 
a fountain. It was not the president, but the secretary, 
who made the announcements. Vainly, but well, the 
chieftain fought. The tongue was given us to speak the 
truth, not falsehood. There are few voices, but many 
echoes, in the world. Death thinn\ed their ranks, but 
could not shake their souls. Not failure, but loiv aim, 
is crime. Not how much, but how zv^ell The battle, 
but not honor, is lost. Though He slay me, yet will / 
trust Him. Live nobly ; and the nobleness that lies in 
others, sleeping, but never dead, will rise in majesty to 
meet thine own. It is never our tenderness we repent of, 
but our severity. 

10. In a series of words or phrases, having the same 
grammatical value, a comma should ordinarily be placed 
after each member of the series. If a conjunction is in- 
serted after each member, commas may or may not be 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. II7 

used. If it is desired to make each member of the series 
stand out in bold rehef, commas should l>e used, even 
though conjunctions are inserted. If a conjunction is 
inserted between only the last two terms of the series, a 
comma should follow each term except the last. If no 
conjunction is inserted between the last two members, a 
comma should be placed after the last member, unless 
what follows is a single word or a short expression very 
closely connected with the series. 

If there are but two terms, and they are connected by 
a conjunction, no comma is needed. Examples: — 

Industry, honesty, frngality, and temperance are among 
the cardinal virtues. Infinite space, endless numbers, and 
eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas. Days, 
months, years, have passed away. He is a wise, prudent, 
and influential citizen. We are fearfully, wonderfully 
made. The katydids, the grasshoppers, the crickets, 
make themselves heard. The Jutes, the Saxons, the 
Angles are the progenitors of the English race. Time 
and tide wait for no' man. Plain, honest truth needs no 
artificial covering. They are a rich and prosperous peo- 
ple. He was brave, pious, patriotic, in all his aspirations. 
The description was beautifully, clearly, and forcefully 
written. The sum, the moon, the planets, the stars re- 
volve. The earth, the air, the water, teem with busy life. 
He is adroit, intense, narrow, and. hard. Genesis, Ex- 
odus, Leviticus, Ntimbers, Deiiteronomy, constitute what 
is called the Pentateuch. Life is a constant, responsible, 
unavoidable duty. No other can know the joys, sorrows, 
fears, and struggles, which fill another's heart. (A 
comma is inserted after struggles to avoid ambiguity.) 
The man professed neither to eat, nor drink, nor sleep. 



Il8 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

All have some conceptions of truth, kindness, honesty, 
self-denial, and disinterestedness. Happy is the child 
who obeys, loves, and honors his parents. We should 
seek after knowledge steadily, patiently, and persever- 
ingly. My father and mother are in the country. Burns, 
Carleton, and Riley are poets of the people. 

Remark. — Two or more adjectives sometimes precede 
the same noun, but are not of the same grammatical con- 
struction. Such adjectives require neither conjunctions 
nor commas. Thus : ''A heautiful white horse.'' Here 
beautiful does not qualify horse merely, but white horse, 
hence no comma. In "a fragrant little flower,'' fragrant 
modifies little flower, and must not therefore be separated 
from it. Other examples are "small speckled hen," *'a 
fine large trout," ''an affable young man," etc. 

11. The clauses of a compound sentence, if short, and 
simple in construction, are separated from one another by 
commas ; as, — 

Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what 
you promise. Caesar was dead, the senators were dis- 
persed, all Rome was in confusion. A man of polite im- 
agination can converse with a picture, and find an agree- 
able companion in a statue. Crafty men contemn studies, 
simple men admire them, but wise men use them. Wind 
puffs up empty bladders, opinion puffs up fools. Cap- 
tain Hull then took a key from his pocket, I unlocked the 
chest, and together we lifted its ponderous lid. 

12. When the clauses of a compound sentence require 
the same verb, which is expressed in the first clause, but 
omitted in the others, the omission is usually marked by 
a comma ; as, — 

He follows his destiny ; I, mine. Carthage has crossed 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. HQ 

the Alps ; Rome, the seas. The former of these tend- 
encies was represented by the Jews ; the latter, by the 
Greeks. From law arises security ; from security, curios- 
ity ; from curiosity, knowledge. A wise man seeks to 
shine in himself; a fool, in others. To err is human; to 
forgive, divine. 

The omitted verb is not marked if there are but two 
clauses, and a conjunction is inserted between them. 
Neither is the omission marked when the clauses are fol- 
lowed by a modifier that qualifies them all alike. ''In a 
very light and vivacious composition the ellipsis of the 
verb is not usually marked.'' Examples : — 

Charles makes the more rapid progress in language, 
but Albert in science. Plato was the more speculative, 
but Bacon the more practical, in philosophy. The animals 
fled to the forest, and we to the shelter of the nearest hut. 

13. A noun clause used as the subject of a verb, is usu- 
ally — though not always — followed by a comma. 

When a noun clause is in apposition with a preceding 
noun, the noun and the clause are separated by a comma. 
A noun clause used as the object of a verb, is not pre- 
ceded by a comma unless the clause is of great length. 
Examples : — 

Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 
That the earth is round is proved by the shape of its 
shadow. Macdonald told his audience, that, for making 
a man accurate, there is nothing like having to teach what 
he possesses. Who has not heard the well-known aphor- 
ism, that seeing is believing f That the zvork of forming 
and perfecting the character is difficult, is generally ad- 
mitted. That Mary Queen of Scots, hardly inferior to 
Elizabeth in intellectual pozver^ stood high above her in 



T20 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

fire and i^racc and brilliancy of tcnipcr, admits of no 
doubt. 

It should be remembered, however, that where irhere 
is one noun clause set off by some mark of punctuation, 
there are nine which are not set off. 

Let the student find in some text-book on grammar, 
examples of noun clauses, and note the punctuation. 

14. Unless the connection is very close, adverbial 
clauses should be separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a comma, especially if they are inverted; as, — 

If the young are taught how to think, they will soon 
learn what to think. // you would appear noble, be noble. 
Unless piiblic opinion supports the law, it is of no' avail. 
// you would be pungent, be brief. We will go if you 
wish. (Connection close.) You may go when you 
please. (Close.) You will reap as you sozu. (Close.) 
He went through the principal provinces of the empire, 
that he might see for himself the condition of the people. 
The tree will not bear fruit in autumn, unless it blossoms 
in the spring. If zvishes zvere horses, beggars might ride. 
Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. The season 
must have been a rainy one, for vegetation is rank. Were 
one to open his ear and his purse to all the schemes pro- 
posed to him, he would soon find himself in the poorhouse. 
Where there is no tale-bearer, strife ceaseth. When the 
cafs azvay, mice play. When a miser has lost his hoard, 
he has nothing left to comfort him. 

SEMICOLON ; COLON. 

I. If the clauses of a compound sentence contain 
commas within themselves, they are commonly separated 
from each other by a semicolon ; if they contain semi- 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 121 

colons, they are separated from each other by colons ; 
as, — 

Having detained you so long already, I shall not tres- 
pass longer upon your patience ; but, before concluding, 
I wish you to observe this truth. Then shook the hills, 
with thunder riven; then rushed the steeds to battle 
driven. As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but 
did not perceive it moving; so our advances in learning, 
consisting of minute steps, are perceivable only by the 
distance. Proisperity is naturally, though not necessarily, 
attached to virtue and merit ; adversity, to folly and vice. 
The path of truth is a plain and safe path ; that of false- 
hood, a perplexing maze. Everything that happens is 
both a cause and an effect ; being the effect of what goes 
before, and the cause of what follows. Our first work is 
to lay the foundation ; our second, to build the super- 
structure. Human happiness has nO' perfect security but 
freedom; freedom, none but virtue; and virtue, none but 
knowledge. Man is unjust, but God is just; and finally 
justice triumphs. To be perfectly just is an attribute of 
God ; to be so tO' the utmost of our abilities, is the glory 
of man. Tomch the goblet no more; it will make thy 
heart sore, to its very core. It is the mind that makes the 
body rich ; and as the sun breaks through the darkest 
clouds, so honor peereth in the meanest habit. Give us 
the man of integrity, on whom we know we can thor- 
oughly depend ; who will stand firm when others fail ; the 
friend, faithful and true ; the adviser, honest and fearless ; 
the adversary, just and chivalrous : such a one is a frag- 
ment of the Rock of Ages. Virtue will catch, as well as 
vice, by contact ; and the public stock of honest, manly 
principle will daily accumulate. Laziness grows on peo- 



122 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

pie ; it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron chains. Three 
things too much, and three too Httle are pernicious to 
man : to speak much, and know Httle ; to spend much, 
and have little; to presume much, and be worth little. 
Every one must, of course, think his own opinions right ; 
for, if he thought them wrong, they would no longer be 
his opinions : but there is a wide difference between re- 
garding ourselves as infallible, and being firmly convinced 
of the truth of our creed. ''Very good,'' replied the dial : 
''but recollect that, though you may think of a million 
strokes in an instant, you are required to execute but one ; 
and that, however often you may hereafter have to swing, 
a moment will always be given you to swing in.'' 

2. Unless the clauses of a compound sentence are very 
short and simple, they are separated by a semicolon, 
though the clauses have no commas within them ; as, — 

There is good for the good; there is virtue for the 
virtuous ; there is victory for the valiant ; there is spirit- 
uality for the spiritual. The blue sky now turned more 
softly gray ; the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes ; 
the east began to kindle. Bolts and bars are not the best 
of our institutions ; nor is shrewdness in trade a mark of 
wisdom. Ingratitude is the abridgment of all baseness ; 
a fault never found unattended with other vices. He 
that forgets his friend is ungrateful to him; but he 
that forgets his Saviour is unmerciful to himself. Sow 
good services ; sweet remembrances will grow from them. 
God intends no man to live in this world without work- 
ing; but it seems to me no less evident that He intends 
every man to be happy in his work. Genius begins great 
works ; labor alone finishes them. Straws swim at the 
surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom. Lying lips are an 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1 23 

abomination unto the Lord ; but they that deal truly are 
His delight. To acquire a few tongues is the task of a 
few years ; to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life- 
time. Law is often spoken of as uncertainty ; but the 
uncertainty is not so much in the law as in the evidence. 

3. A semicolon is used to separate clauses having a 
commo-n dependence; as, — 

Science declares that no particle of matter can be de- 
stroyed ; that each atom has its place in the universe ; and 
that, in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws. 
Children, as they played on the beach; reapers, as they 
gathered the harvest ; mowers, as they rested from using 
the scythe; mothers, as they busied themselves about the 
household, — were victims to an enemy who disappeared 
the moment a blow was struck. When my heart shall 
have ceased to throb; when my life shall have passed 
away; when my body shall have been consigned to the 
tomb, — then shall all these things be remembered in my 
favor. Still more surprised were they to learn that, in 
order to have bread, wheat had to be sown in the ground ; 
that grass was necessary for the production of milk ; and 
that wine did not flow out of casks on turning the key. 
If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cab- 
inet ; of the purest patriotism ; of the highest integrity, 
public and private ; of morals without a stain ; of religious 
feeling without intolerance and without extravagance, — 
the august character of Washington presents itself as 
the personation of all these. That benevolence vv^hich 
prompted Jesus to incessant exertion; which supported 
Him through unparalleled suffering; which was alike the 
soul of His discourses. His actions, and His miracles ; 
which shone through His life and His death; whose 



124 '^^m^ ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

splendors were around His brow when He expired on the 
cross, and when He sat down on the right hand of the 
Majesty on high, — what is it but a glorious revelation of 
the glorious truth that God is love? Philosophers assert, 
that nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has 
inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that all future generations will 
continue to make discoveries. To give an early prefer- 
ence to honor above gain, when they stand in competi- 
tion ; to despise every advantage that can not be attained 
without dishonest acts ; to brook no meanness ; and to 
stoop to no dissimulations, are the indications of a great 
mind. 

4. A clause which is added to a complete sentence by 
way of inference, explanation, enumeration, or contrast, 
is preceded by a semicolon if the clause is introduced by 
a conjunction; if the conjunction is omitted,'^ by a colon; 
as, — • 

Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four car- 
dinal virtues ; to wit, Fortitude, Temperance, Justice, and 
Prudence. America has produced six great historians ; 
namely, Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Parkman, Ridpath, 
and Fiske. I am poor and needy ; yet the Lord thinketh 
upon me. Apply yourself to study : it will redound to 
your honor. Honesty is the best policy; but he who acts 
on that principle is not an honest man. Men must have 
recreation: literature and art furnish that which is most 
pure, innocent, and refining. In every work of genius we 
recognize our own rejected thoughts: they come back to 
us with a sort of alienated majesty. The wise man's 



^Some writers use the semicolon even though a conjunction is 
not inserted. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1 25 

eyes are in his head ; but the fool walketh in darkness. 
Study to acquire a habit of thinknig: no study is more 
important. Never flatter people: leave that to such as 
mean to betray them. He who seldom thinks of heaven 
is not likely to get there: the only way to hit the mark 
is to keep the eye fixed upon it. Error is a hardy plant : 
it flourishes in every soil. To be bold against an enemy 
is common to the brutes ; but to be bold against himse 
is the prerogative of man. He that gathereth in summer 
is a wise son ; but he that sleepeth in harvest is a son 
that causeth shame. The greatest truths are the simplest ; 
and so are the greatest men. 

5. Direct quotations, and formal enumerations of par- 
ticulars, when introduced by such expressions as, the fol- 
lozving, in these zvords, as follozvs, these^ this, thus, etc., 
are preceded by a colon ; as, — 

Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter in the 
following words: ''A little philosophy inclineth men's 
minds to atheism ; but depths in philosophy bringeth men's 
minds to religion." We hold these truths to be self- 
evident : that all men are created equal ; that they are 
endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; 
that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- 
piness. His words were these : 'Tf I am guilty, punish 
me.'' These are the terms : No cure, no pay. For of all 
sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest are these: 'Tt 
might have been." This is the rule: A subject in the 
singular number requires a singular verb. He expressed 
the thought thus : "Idleness is the greatest prodigality in 
the world." 

When the quotation begins a new paragraph, a colon 



126 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

and dash usually, but not always^ follows the introduc- 
tory words ; as, — 

This is the stanza I mean : — 

'^There is no glory in a star or blossom 
Till looked upon by a loving eye," etc. 

In the discussion of the uses of the comma it was stated 
that a short quotation not formally introduced, is usually 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. When 
a quotation serves as the object of a verb, and immediately 
follows the verb, it is, unless very long, preceded by a 
comma. If the quotation is very short, it is frequently 
not set off at all. All books containing dialogue, afford 
examples without number. Examine a page or two of 
such a book. 

DASH ; MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 

Of the Dash, Dr. Raub says: '^The Dash has its legiti- 
mate use, and is necessary in many kinds of composition, 
but it is frequently used by unskilled writers as a substi- 
tute for the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the marks 
of parenthesis^ and even the period. It should not be 
used as a substitute for any of these. The use of the 
dash for any of the marks here mentioned is permissible 
only where none of them can be correctly used.' 

I. The dash marks the omission of namely, that is, 
viz., or some such introductory term ; as, — 

Three parties have candidates in the field, — the Repub- 
lican, the Democratic, and the Prohibition. The world 
can boast of only four great writers of epic poetry, — 
Homer, Virgil, Dante, and Milton. 

In the foregoing sentences the semicolon, or even the 
colon, would be used instead of the dash, by some writers 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 127 

of repute. Others would use the dash but omit the 
comma. Those who employ a semicolon or a colon are 
a very small minority. 

2. Parenthetical expressions too independent in con- 
struction to admit of commas, are enclosed either by 
dashes or by marks of parenthesis. The dash is more 
frequently used now in this sense than formerly. A 
parenthetical expression enclosed by dashes is usually less 
independent of the context than one enclosed by the curves 
of parenthesis. Examples : — 

In truth; the character of the great chief was depicted 
two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and de- 
picted — ^such is the power of genius — in colors which will 
be fresh as many years after his death. The smile of a 
child — always ready when there is no distress, and so 
soon recurring when that distress has passed away — is 
like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. Re- 
ligion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest theme for the 
exercise of the intellect. There are times — they only can 
understand who know them — when passion is dumb, and 
purest love maintains her own dominion. To Anderson 
— a young man of fancy — everything in Italy was a de- 
light. Those who hated him most heartily — and no 
[other] man was hated so heartily — admitted that he 
possessed great intellectual brilliance. Pride, in some dis- 
guise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), 
is the most common spring of human action. Approach 
and read (for thou canst read) the lay engraved on the 
stone beneath yon aged thorn. My new bicycle (Is it 
not handsome?) is the latest make. The lecture (if 
such it may be called) was a distinct disappointment. 

Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 



128 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

3. A dash sometimes precedes an emphatic summing 
up of particulars ; as, — ■ 

The great men of Rome, her legends, her history, the 
height to which she rose, the depths to which she fell, — 
these make up one-half of many a student's ideal life. 
Moses, Joshua, Gideon, David, Daniel, — these are the 
names that impart luster to Jewish history. He was 
witty, affable, sympathetic, discreet, — ^everything but in- 
dustrious. Money, lands, influence, friends, — all are 
gone. 

4. A dash is used to mark an abrupt change in either 
the construction or the sentiment ; as, — • 

Her soul was noble — in her own opinion. Was there 
ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there 
ever— but I scorn to boast. Then he turned to the future 
— and ordered his dinner. If you will give me your 
attention, I will show you — but stop ; I do not know that 
you wish to hear me. Have you ever seen — but of course 
you never have. He had no malice in his mind — no 
freckles on his nose. You are — no, Til not tell you what 
you are. Babylon, Nineveh, Athens, Rome — where are 
they ? He chastens ; — but He chastens to save. 

"He suffered — but his pangs are o'er; 
He enjoyed — but his delights are fled; 
Had friends — his friends are now no more; 
And foes — his foes are dead." 

— Mont o; ornery. 

5. Pauses and repetitions which are intended for elocu- 
tionary effect are often indicated by dashes ; as, — 

If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while 
a foreign troop were landed in my country, I would never 
lay dowii my arms — never, never, never ! Newton was 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1 29 

a Christian ; — Newton ! whose mind burst forth from 
the fetters cast by nature on our finite conceptions; 
Newton ! — whose science was truth, and the foundation 
of whose knowledge of it was philosophy. There is one 
quality which everywhere characterizes growth, — the 
quality of repose. One feels that he is in a hard world, 
but it is a real world, — not a hospital, a mad-house, or a 
place of fantastic dreams. For nature, in the prophetic 
vision of childhood, was as she "will some day become in 
the vision of science, — a sublime analogy of the growth 
of man. Moses, with God on the mountain, came 
down with a shining face — shining so brightly with 
unconscious power that the people could not gaze upon 
him until he was veiled. This implies different degrees 
of spiritual power — power sufficient to reach some hearL^ 
but not all. This spiritual force uses the power of 
thought, which is immense in its character — the thoughts 
not only of good men, but of angels and of God — 
thoughts which were from eternity, and thoughts which 
shall triumph when earth's history shall have closed. 
Here lies the dust of Cicero' — Cicero! who once thrilled 
the world with his eloquence. He has a weakness — a 
weakness of the head as well as of the heart. .Men will 
wrangle for religion, write for it, fight for it, anything 
but— live for it. Shakespeare is above all other writers, 
at least above all modern writers, the poet of nature — 
the poet that holds up tO' his readers a faithful mirror 
of manners and life. 

6. The dash is used to indicate the omission of letters 
or figures; as, ''He was born in i8 — , in the town of 
, Md." 

7. A dash should be inserted between a title run in the 



130 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

line and the subject matter; also between a citation and 
the authority for it. This rule is repeatedly exemplified 
tiii'oughout this book. 

8. The parts of a dialogue or conversation, when run 
into a paragraph instead of beginning separate lines, are 
separated by dashes; as, ''Shall you attend school this 
year?'' — 'T shall.'' ''Do you enjoy school work?" — 
"I do." 

9. In reports of speeches, marks of Parenthesis are 
used to enclose remarks of approval or disapproval by the 
audience, and to enclose the name of the person indicated 
by a pronoun, by gestures, or otherwise ; as, "Mr. Chair- 
man, I beg leave to ask the gentleman from Iowa (Mr. 
Allison) a question which he would prefer to answer else- 
where (hear, hear)." 

10. Numerals when employed for the sake of a clear 
enumeration of the parts or divisions of a general sub- 
ject, are sometimes enclosed by marks of parenthesis. An 
interrogation point or an exclamation point is sometimes 
similarly enclosed to indicate a query or a doubt. 

The Brackets [ ] are used to enclose an interpolation, 
which is intended to correct an error, afford an explana- 
tion, supply an omission, or give a reference ; as, "The 
jury is [are] not agreed." "Webster was more eloquent 
than any [other] orator of his day." 

Dr. Hart says : "The brackets are used to enclose a 
sentence, or a part of a sentence, within the body of an- 
other sentence, and thus far are like the marks of pa- 
renthesis. But the matter included within brackets is 
entirely independent of the sentence, and so differs from 
what is merely parenthetical. Further, the matter within 
the brackets is usually inserted by one writer to correct 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. I3I 

or add to what has been written by another, while the 
parenthesis is a part of the original composition, and is 
written by the same person that wrote the rest of the 
sentence." 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

When the words of another are introduced into one's 
discourse, they are called a quotation. Every direct quo- 
tation should be enclosed in quotation marks ; as, Jesus 
said, ''I am the way, the truth, and the life.'' ''The object 
of education," says the philosopher Kant, "is to develop 
in each individual all the perfection of which he is sus- 
ceptible." 

A quotation coming within another quotation is en- 
closed by single quotation marks ; as. The helpless man 
said with evident satisfaction, 'T love to think of those 
precious words, T am poor and needy ; yet the Lord 
thmketh upon me.' " ''On one occasion," says Whittier, 
"I was told that a foreigner had applied to my mother 
for lodging. 'What if a son of mine were in a strange 
land?' she said to herself." 

The titles of books, essays, etc., are sometimes enclosed 
in quotation marks. If such titles are printed in italics, 
they are usually not enclosed. 

A quotation consisting of two or more paragraphs re- 
quires the inverted commas at the beginning of each par- 
agraph, but the closing marks follow the last paragraph 
only. 

The uses of other marks employed in printed discourse, 
can be readily learned by consulting any good dictionary. 

In the light of the foregoing rules and principles, study 
the punctuation of the following sentences : — 

I. "We hear much of love to God ; Christ spoke much 



132 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

of love to man. We make a great deal of peace with 
heaven ; Christ spoke much of peace on ea,TtW—Drum- 
mond. 

2. 'The greatest thing/' says some one, ''a man can 
do for his heavenly Father is to be kind to some of His 
other children." 

3. Give me the charity which delights not in exposing 
the weakness of others, but ''covereth all things." 

4. Spiritual experience occupies itself, not too much, 
but too exclusively, with one factor — the soul. 

5. He that would be happy, let him remember that it 
is more blessed — it is more happy — to give than to 
receive. 

6. These two. Heredity and Environment, are the 
master influences of the organic life. 

7. The world is not a playground ; it is a schoolroom : 
and its great lesson that we are always to learn is the les- 
son of love in all its parts. 

8. If we neglect a garden plant, them a natural prin- 
ciple of deterioration comes in, and changes it into a 
worse plant. . . . Or, if we neglect almost any of 
the domestic animals, they will rapidly revert to wild and 
worthless forms. Now, the same thing exactly would 
happen in the case of you and me. Why should man be 
an exception to any of the laws of nature? 

9. There is only one thing greater than happiness in 
the world, and that is holiness ; and that is not in our 
keeping ; God reserves that to Himself ; but what He has 
put in our power is the happiness of our fellow-creatures, 
and that is to be secured by our being kind. 

10. There is no ''perhaps" in nature; there is a cause 
for everything that we see, or feel, or hear. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1 33 

11. Has love no future? Has right no triumph? Is 
the unfinished self to remain unfinished? Again, the 
alternatives are. two, Christianity or Pessimism. 

12. To seize continuously the opportunity of more and 
more perfect adjustment to better and higher conditions; 
to balance some inward evil with some purer influence 
acting from without ; in a w^ord, to make our environment 
at the same time that it is making us — these are the secrets 
of a well-ordered and successful life. 

13. Drummond once wrote: ''There is a disease called 
'touchiness' — a disease which, in spite of its innocent 
name, is one of the gravest sources of restlessness in the 
world." 

14. If you once ask the devil to dinner, it will be hard 
to get him out of the house again : better to have nothing 
to do with him. 

15. If you want to sleep soundly, buy a bed of a man 
who is in debt ; surely it must be a very soft one, or he 
never could have rested so easy on it. 

16. Why, I know tradesmen who have failed five or 
six times, and yet they think they are on the way to 
heaven; the scoundrels, what would they do if they got 
there ? 

17. To carry two faces under one hat is, however, very 
common. 

18. Spurgeon puts these words in the mouth of John 
Ploughman : "Shirt sleeves rolled up lead on to best 
broadcloth ; and he who is not ashamed of the apron will 
soon be able to do without it. 'Diligence is the mother of 
good luck,' as Poor Richard says.'' 

19. And now after so long a preface, hear my thought 
— a thought I gave the Endeavorers the next morning, 



134 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

as we stood in our sunrise prayer-meeting by the side of 
the sea. Keep 'warin the heart within you, if you want to 
keep the pozver outside you! 

20. From this trifling experience of mine, I have de- 
duced one of my hfe maxims, — a formula which I have 
found very useful in this bustling telephone of a world. 
The maxim contains a bit of a lesson for men of conceit 
and of heady self-assertion ; a lesson which they will prob- 
ably leave just where they find it, but nevertheless here 
it is: "Talk easy; listen hardT 

21. The following words are from the pen of Dr. 
Wells :— 

'Tt is considered a disgrace, in a printer's office, to 
have long galleys of type gathering dust, laid up in the 
frames or laid out on the 'stone.' After type has been 
used, if it is not to be used again, — and especially if it 
has been stereotyped, — it is appropriately called 'dead 
matter,' and should be distributed as soon as possible. 
Worker, if you would be shrewd, distribute your life-types 
as soon as the matter has become stereotyped! Your 
words may have been eloquent as Demosthenes ; never 
mind ; they are now dead matter. Don't use them again 
and again. Throw them in, and set up new words. 
Your methods have been good, but they are now stereo- 
typed. Let's have a change. Keep up the circulation. 
Distribute the type. Give us new combinations. 'Time 
makes ancient good uncouth,' worker, — ancient formulas, 
ancient expressions, ancient tools, ancient ways of using 
ancient tools." 

22. The dewdrop that glistens in the eye of the daisy ; 
the green sap that fills the delicate veins of the lilies ; the 
soit sprmg rain that fertilizes the earth, nourishing the 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 135 

seed in the furrow, and the blossom on the tree ; the snow 
that covers with its stainless shroud the dead things of 
nature, — all, all come from the sea. 

23. And not only is it [the sea] the emblem of 
change: it is itself the cause, directly or indirectly, of 
nearly all the physical changes that take place in the 
world. 

24. Falsehood is in a hurry ; it may be at any moment 
detected and punished; truth is calm, serene; its judg- 
ment is on high ; its king cometh out of the chambers of 
eternity. 

25. Every one wishes to have truth on his side, but it 
is not every one that sincerely wishes to be on the side 
of truth. 

26. All truth undone becomes unreal: ''he that doeth 
His will shall know,'' says Jesus. 

2y, Tribulation will not hurt you, unless it does — what, 
alas ! it too often does — unless it hardens you, and makes 
you sour and narrow and skeptical. 

28. In the words of Mr. Simmons : ''Johnson well says, 
'He who waits to do a great deal of good at once will 
never do anything.' " 

29. Wit is brushwood ; judgment, timber ; the one gives 
the greater flame; the other, the greater heat. 

30. Perfect wisdom hath four parts ; viz., wisdom, the 
principle of doing things aright; justice, the principle of 
doing things equally in public and private ; fortitude, the 
principle of not flying danger, but meeting it; and tem- 
perance, the principle of subduing desires and living 
moderately. 

31. You have too much respect upon the world: they 
lose it that do buy it with much care. — Shakespeare. 



136 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

32. We enjoy ourselves only in our work — in our do- 
ing; and. our best doing is our best enjoyment. 

33. St. Edmund of Canterbury was right when he said 
to some one, ''Work as though you would live forever; 
live as though you would die to-day:'' 

34. Cast forth thy act, thy word, into the ever-living, 
ever- working universe ; it is a seed-grain that can not die ; 
unnoticed to-day, it will be found flourishing as a banyan 
grove; perhaps, alas, as a hemlock forest, after a thou- 
sand years. 

35. Education is a companion which no misfortune can 
depress, no crime destroy, no enemy alienate, no des- 
potism enslave. At home, a friend ; abroad, an introduc- 
tion; in solitude, a solace; and in society, an ornament. 
Without it, what is man? — a splendid slave, a reasoning 
savage. 

36. A true education — what is it? It is awakening a 
love for truth; giving a just sense of duty; opening the 
eyes of the soul to the great purpose and end of life. It 
is not so much giving words, as thoughts; or mere 
maxims, as living principles. It is not teaching to be 
honest, because "Honesty is the best policy," but because 
it is right. It is teaching the individual to love the 
good, for the sake of the good ; to be virtuous in action, 
because so in heart ; to love and serve God supremely, not 
from fear, but from delight in His perfect character. 

37. The real object of education is to give children 
resources that will endure as long as life endures, — -habits 
that time will ameliorate, not destroy; occupations that 
will render sickness tolerable, solitude pleasant, age ven- 
erable, life more dignified and useful, and death less ter- 
rible. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 1 37 

38. There are three lofty virtues, — faith, hope, charity. 

39. The silence of nature is more impressive, would we 
understand it, than any speech could be; it expresses 
what no speech can utter. 

40. Satire should not be like a saw, but a sword: it 
should cut, and not mangle. 

41. In describing the vast influence of a perfect orator 
over the feelings and passions of his audience, Sheridan 
forcibly says: ''Notwithstanding the diversity of minds 
in such a multitude, by the lightning of eloquence they 
are melted into one mass ; the whole assembly, actuated 
in one and the same way, become, as it were, but one 
man, and have but one voice. The universal cry is, 'Let 
us march against Philip ; let us fight for our liberties ; let 
us conquer or die.' " 

42. I gave (and who would not have done so?) my 
last nickel to the helpless boy. 

43. My St. Bernard dog (is he not a fine fellow?) cost 
me twenty-five dollars. 

44. You demand universal suffrage, — I demand uni- 
versal education to go with it. 

45. Garrick showed Johnson his fine house, gardens, 
statues, pictures, etc., at Hampton Court. — "Ah! David, 
David,'' said the doctor, "these are the things that make 
death terrible." 



46. 



Ill fare the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay; 
Princes and lords may flourish or may fade ; 
A breath can make them, as a breath has made; 
But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, 
When once destroyed, can never be supplied. 



138 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

47. We can not always succeed ; but, if we fail, we 
can always fail — in good spirits. 

48. Write a short essay on Fame with the following 
motto : — 

What is celebrity? The advantage of being known to 
people whom you don't know. 



49. 



50. 



A thing of beauty is a joy forever; 
Its loveliness increases ; it will never 
Pass into nothingness. 

— Keats. 



A brook came stealing from the ground ; 
You scarcely saw its silvery gleam 

Among the herbs that hung around 

The borders of that winding stream, — 
The pretty stream, the placid stream, 
The softly-gliding, bashful stream. 



PART IV. 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 



To be able to write a good letter is an enviable accom- 
plishment. To be wanting in this accomplishment is to 
prove one's education to be defective. Being the most 
practical of the several kinds of composition, letter- 
writing should be — if there is any difference — the most 
thoroughly mastered. Not every one can reasonably 
aspire to write essays or books of any kind for the gen- 
eral reader, but everybody writes letters. What one 
needs to do so often, one ought to be able to do well. 
Too little attention is given to the cultivation of excel- 
lence in espistolary composition. Perhaps only one let- 
ter in a hundred would be adjudged an ideal letter in 
both form and matter. At least the mechanical requisites 
of a good letter should be mastered by every one who has 
occasion for writing letters. 

There are two general classes of letters, — Informal or 
private, and Formal or business letters. A good busi- 
ness letter is clear, courteous, and brief. Its language is 
definite. It conveys its meaning in the fewest words con- 
sistent with ordinary politeness. It observes the best 
forms of address and signature. It refrains from 
brusque remarks and from curt abbreviations. It con- 
tains nothing personal or irrelevant. 

(139) 



140 „ THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

A^ery different, however, are the tone and manner of h 
personal or social letter. Professor Meiklejohn says: — 

"hi private letter-writing let yourself go a little — be entirely 
natural. Remember that you are not writing in an examination- 
room. This of itself will probably cause you to write in a nat- 
ural style. Nothing is so tiresome, nothing gives so little pleas- 
ure to receive, as a 'composition' letter. In private letters 
anything like a formal style is disagreeable; indeed, much more 
laxity of expression — even to colloquialism-r-is both admissible 
and pleasant. If you are writing to a friend, write to him as you 
would talk to him, and not as if the eye of the examiner were 
always upon you." 

From Professor Lewis : — 

"To give such a letter [informal] the tone which represents 
exactly the relation between the two people is a hard task. The 
nicest sense of tact is required in order not to be too stiff and 
not too familiar. Personal letters demand the art of colloquial 
composition. Those imperceptive persons who have but one 
style of composition, — that of a book, or that of a clerk, — make 
sorry work of personal letters. Suppose that you have always 
known one of these persons. You have played with him, read 
with him. . . . When you meet, he calls you by your first 
name. When he writes to ask you to visit him, he addresses you 
as Dear Sir, and signs himself Respectfully! His letters give 
you a chill. There is too little of the personal letter-writing of 
the better sort, the leisurely, careful, courteous, old-fashioned 
kind of written talk, — writing that, like Thomas Cholmondeley's, 
could be signed, 'Ever yours and not in haste.' " 

The conventional letter consists, as to form, of seven 
parts, — the Heading, the Address, the Salutation, the 
Body, the Complimentary Close, the Signature, and the 
Superscription. 

By the Heading is meant the name of the place at 
which the letter is written and the date. If a letter is 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. I4I 

written from a city, the door number, the name of the 
street, the name of the city, and the name of the State 
should be clearly given. If the writer is staying at a 
hotel or at a school, or any other well-known institution, 
its name takes the place of that of the street and the 
number, as may also the number of your post-office box. 
If the letter is written from a village or other country 
place, the name of the county, as well as that of the post- 
office and that of the State, should be given. 

Begin the Heading on the first line of the page, or, 
if the paper is unruled, about an inch and a half from the 
top edge of the paper. The Heading should be well 
toward the right-hand edge of the page. If it occupies 
more than one line, the second line should be a little 
farther to the right than the first, and the third a little 
farther than the second. The date and the name of the 
place are sometimes put below the signature, toward the 
left edge of the page. Each item is set off by a comma, 
and the whole is followed with a period. Example of 
Headings are here given : — • 

Sunbury, Pa., July i^, ipoi. . 

Cloverdale, Sonoma Co., Cal., 

Aug. J, 1901. 

Normal School, Millersville, Pa., 

Sept. 10, ipoi. 

10 Park St., Boston, Mass., 

Aug. 21, igoi. 



142 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

i^i and ips Lafayette Ave., 

Detroit, Mich,, 
Oct. 5, igoi. 

The Address consists of two parts : ( i ) The name and 
title of the person addressed; (2) the name of the place 
to which the letter is to be sent. The address begins 
about half an inch from the left edge of the paper, and 
may occupy one, two, or three lines just below the head- 
ing. 

In any except business letters the address is sometimes 
put near the left margin on the line below the signature. 
In familiar letters the address is frequently omitted. 

Titles need to be used with discrimination. Thus : 
Prefix Mr. to a man's name, when no other title has dis- 
placed Mr. ; Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen ; 
Master to the name of a boy; Miss to the name of an 
unmarried lady ; Misses to the names of several unmar- 
ried ladies ; Mrs. to the name of a married lady or a 
widow; Mesdames (pronounce Ma-dam') to names of 
two or more married ladies or widows ; Dr. (plural Drs.) 
to the name of a physician, or M. D. is placed after the 
name. The Rev. is usually prefixed to the name of a 
clergyman, or The Rev. Mr., if his first name is not 
known to the writer; The Rev. Dr., if he is a doctor of 
divinity, or The Rev. before his name and D. D. after it. 
A Dean in the Anglican Church or the Principal (if a 
clergyman) of a Scotch University, or the Moderator of 
the Scotch General Assembly, receives the title of The 
Very Rev.; Bishops of the English and Catholic Churches 
are styled The Right (Rt.) Rev., and Archbishops, The 
Most Rev. The word Venerable is placed before the 
name of an Archdeacon; as, — 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. I43 

The Venerable A B , 

Archdeacon of . 



The Bishops of the Methodist Church prefer the sim- 
pler title of Rev. 

Esq. is added to the name of a lawyer, of a justice of 
the peace, of a notary public, and sometimes to men of 
more than ordinary social standing. In England it is 
accorded to all untitled owners of landed estates, bar- 
risters at law, mayors, commissioned officers in the army 
and navy, and professional men. Esq. and Mr. should 
never be applied to the same name at the same time. 
The Hon. or Hon. (preferably the former) is prefixed to 
the name of a Cabinet officer, a member of Congress, a 
State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. Prefix His 
Excellency to the name of a Governor or of an Ambas- 
sador; as, ''To His Excellency the Governor of Ohio,'' 
or simply, ''To His Excellency the Governor." In con- 
versation, the President is addressed as "Mr. President ;" 
by foreigners, as "Your Excellency." 

In writing, the form of salutation is, "Mr. President, 
Sir;" or, "To His Excellency, the President of the 
United States." The complimentary close may vary ; 
thus, "I am, sir, your most obedient servant;" "I am 
most respectfully yours ;" "I have the honor to be your 
^Excellency's most obedient servant," etc. The super- 
scription should be : — 

To the President, 

Executive Mansion, 

Washington, B.C. 



144 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE, 

Or, 

To the President of the United States, 
Washington, D. C. 

Or, 

To His Excellency, 

The President of the United States, 
Executive Mansion, 

Washington, D. C. 

The order of priority of office in civil government is : — 

The President, the Vice-President, the Chief Justice, 
the Speaker of the House, Ambassadors from foreign 
countries, and next the members of the Cabinet. The 
ladies of the Cabinet come next to the wife of the Presi- 
dent. 

The priority of rank in the Cabinet is : The Secretary 
of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of 
War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary 
of Navy, Secretary of Interior, Secretary of Agriculture. 

The members of the Cabinet are addressed by their 
official titles, with that of Hon, prefixed; as, — 

To the Honorable, the Secretary of State. 

The adding of the surname would be superfluous, as 
there is but one Secretary at the same time. The same is 
true of the President. An invitation from a member of 
the Cabinet would begin, — 

The Secretary of War and Mrs. Root request the 
honor of, etc. 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 1 45 

The Vice-President is addressed as, ''Mr. Vice- 
President, Sir;" the Chief- Justice as, ''Mr. Chief Justice, 
Sir.'^ 

An associate Justice of the Supreme Court is addressed 
simply as, "Mr. Justice," with the surname added; thus, 
"Mr. Justice Gray." The form of the superscription 

is, — 

To The Hon. Joseph McKenna, 
Jitstice of Supreme Court, 
United States, 

Washington, D, C, 

The Head of the Army is addressed thus : — 

To Major-General Nelson A. Miles, 
Commanding Officer, 

Washington, D, C. 
Or, 

To Major-General Nelson A. Miles, 

Commanding the Army of the U. S,, 
Washington, D. C. 

The salutation commonly employed in addressing the 
President, a member of the Cabinet, an officer in the 
Army or Navy, is simply Sir. If the writer is on intimate 
terms with such officer, he may write. Dear Sir, or Dear 
General. 

The Pope is addressed (except by those whose con- 
sciences protest) as, — 



10 



146 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

His Holiness the Pope. 
Or, 

To Our Most Holy Father, 
Pope Leo XHL 

The salutation: ''Most Holy Father/' or ''Your Holi- 
ness." 

A Cardinal is addressed as, — 

His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons. 

Or, 

To His Eminence the Most Reverend Cardinal Gib- 
bons. 

The salutation is: "Your Eminence," or "Most Em- 
inent and Most Reverend Sir." 

Scholastic degrees are nearly always abbreviated. 
Except in college calendars and catalogues, more than 
one such degree is not usually written. If Professor 
Blank is the proud possessor of M. S., A. M., Ph. D., 
LL. D., F. R. S., etc., it would hardly be in good taste to 
string them out on the back of an envelope. The highest 
alone should be given, which is, of course, the last 
received. That usually implies the others. Thus : — 

Prof. John Blank, LL. D., or 

Dr. John Blank, F. R. S. - 

In addressing the President of an institution, his official 
title should be given after the name ; as, — = 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. I47 

To Benjamin Ide Wheeler, LL, D., 
President of University of California, 

To James R. Parker, 
President First National Bank. 

Examples of Form in the Address : — 

The Hon. T. J. Geary, 
Santa Rosa, Cal. 

Messrs. D. Appleton & Co., 
77 & 7P Fifth Ave., 
Neiv York City. 

The Salutatioin varies with the tenor of the letter or the 
position occupied by the one addressed. Much depends 
upon the degree of intimacy between the writer and his 
correspondent. Dear Sir is a title of respect, not of afifec- 
tion, and is used in addressing business men and strangers 
generally. Dear Madam is the corresponding form to 
use in addressing a lady who is a stranger to the writer. 
It is used in addressing a lady, married or unmarried, old 
or young. When writing to a business firm, the saluta- 
tion may be Dear Sirs or Gentlemen. When addressing^ 
a committee or association of women, the proper saluta- 
tion is Ladies. When writing to a minister of the gos- 
pel, the salutation may be Reverend Sir, or Rev. and 
dear Sir. In addressing a friend, it may be Dear Friend, 
Friend Jones, Friend Arthur, Dear Cousin, My dear 
Friend, Dear Miss Potter, My dear Boy, My dear Wife, 
Dearest Alice, etc. 

Dr. as an abbreviation of Dear, or Gents for Gentle- 



148 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

men, is not only incorrect, but decidedly crude. Note 
the capitalization in the foregoing salutation forms. The 
salutation is followed either by a comma and dash or by 
a colon. If the body of the letter begins on the same 
line with the salutation, the salutation may be followed 
by a colon and dash. 

Correct forms of Address and Salutation are here 
given: — 

Mr. James D. Fields 
Mifnintown, Pa. 
Dear Sir: 

Your letter of July loth, etc. 

Ginn & Co., Publishers, 
jj Tremont Place, 
Boston, Mass. 
Dear Sirs: — Enclosed find, etc. 

Miss Mary F. Smith, 

2^5 Clark St., Chicago. 
Dear Madam, — 

Please accept my thanks, etc. 

Miss Mary F. Smith, 
2^5 Clark St., 
Chicago, III. 
Dear Madam: 

Please, etc. 

To strangers or superiors the complimentary close is, 
Truly yours. Respectfully yours, Very respectfully yours. 
Yours truly. Very truly yours, etc. 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. I49 

In letters of friendship more endearing terms are 
employed : Your friend, Ever your friend, Your sincere 
friend. Your loving daughter, Your affectionate mother, 
Sincerely and gratefully yours, With kindest regards,. 
ever your friend. Believe me sincerely yours. 

Be sure to write ''yours" after the closing phrases 
Affectionately, Very sincerely. Very, truly, etc. ''Re- 
spectfully yours is not in good taste between persons of 
equal social standing/' writes Miss Helen E. Gavit. 

The complimentary close should begin near the mid- 
dle of the first line below the body of the letter; and, if 
occupying two or more lines, should slope to the right, 
like the address. 

It is separated from the signature by a comma. Each 
line of the complimentary close should begin with a cap- 
ital. The signature should be so written as to enable the 
person addressed to know at once the proper title to use 
in the answer. A lady, when writing to a stranger, 
should prefix to her signature, her title, Mrs. or Miss, 
unless in her letter she has indicated her title. A man, 
when addressing a stranger, should write his Christian 
name in full. J. M. Smith might be Joseph M. Smith, 
(Miss) Julia M. Smith, or (Mrs.) Jennie M. Smith. 

The signature should be placed to the right-hand side, 
on the line next below the complimentary close. Note 
the capitals, punctuation marks, and form of the follow- 
ing models : — • 

(I) 

Very truly yours, 

Thomas R, Brooks, 



150 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

- (2) 

Yours with sincere esteem^ 

Walter J, Otis. 

(3) 

I have the honor to he. Sir, 

Yonr ohedieiit servant, 

William T. Wallace. 



(4) 
(5) 

(6) 



/ am very sincerely, 

Your friend, 

Paul E. Everett. 

Sincerely and gratefully yours, 

Henry K. Davis. 

Respectfully yours. 

Miss Maud E. Benton (or) 
(Miss) Maud E. Benton. 

The Superscription includes the items that are written 
upon the envelope. It is arranged in either three or four 
lines. The first line — the name and title — is usually 
written across the middle of the envelope. The lines are 
so arranged as to cause each one to begin farther to the 
right than the preceding one, bringing the name of the 
state near the lower right-hand corner. As the outside 
of the envelope first attracts the eye of the receiver of a 
letter, and, in a way, introduces the writer, the super- 
scription should be as neat and distinct as possible. All 
flourishes, all conceits of fancy, should be avoided. It is 
not in good taste to write messages on the envelope; as, 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 



151 



''In haste/' ''Deliver at once/' "Important/' etc. The 
sign % for "in care of/' and the symbol # for the word 
''number/' have long since been discarded. 

"There is a wide difference of opinion as to the punctu- 
ation of a superscription. The writers of the old school 
maintain that a comma should end every line but the 
last, as it indicates the omission of a word. Rhetorically 
speaking, they are perfectly correct. The writers of the 
new school insist that, as punctuation is merely the sepa- 
ration of sentences and parts of sentences for clearness, 
the division into lines, in an address, answers the pur- 
pose of punctuation, and renders the comma superfluous. 
The generality of writers seem to follow the later prac- 
tise, and, with the exception of abbreviations, omit all 
punctuation on the envelope." 

Dr. Hart, of Cornell University, writes : "The differ- 
ence between Mrs. William Thompson and Mrs. Helen 
Thompson is one of etiquette. A married woman whose 
husband is living, is properly addressed by the name of 
her husband, e. g., Mrs. William Thompson. If the hus- 
band is dead, the female [feminine] name is permissible; 
though some widows prefer the retention of the husband's 
name. 

"In the envelope-address Professor is frequently, per- 
haps usually, abbreviated to Prof., but the proper form 
in writing to a doctor of medicine is John Chapman, M. D. 
In any case do not begin the heading of your letter. Dear 
Prof., Dear Doc. The phrases have an unmistakable 
flavor of vulgarity. Begin, My dear Professor, My dear 
Doctor.'' 



£52 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

The abbreviated forms of state names must be written 
with unmistakable distinctness. It is easy in careless 
writing to confound Cal. and CoL; Pa, and Va. and La.; 
AL Y. and N. /.; Mass. and Miss.; Penn. and Tenm; 
Me. and Mo., etc. Instead of writing New York, N. Y., 
in addressing a letter to the metropolis, write New York 
City, if you would be in keeping with present vogue. 
The name of the county or the box number may be placed 
near the lower left-hand corner of the envelope, instead 
of being placed under the name of the post-office, as a 
third line. The stamp should be placed near the upper 
right-hand corner of the envelope, not only for the sake 
of neatness, but also for the convenience of the post- 
office clerk. 

Notes are classified as formal and informal. The tone 
and style of an informal note are determined by the taste 
and judgment of the writer. The style of a formal note 
is governed by the comparatively fixed rules of social 
etiquette. Formal social notes include notes of invita- 
tion, acceptance, regret, congratulation, and condolence. 
Formal notes are always written in the third person. 
The time and place of writing are given below the body 
of the note, and well toward the left-hand side. The 
year is omitted from the date. 

The form and style of such notes can be learned most 
easily by examining a few specimens: — 

(I) 

Mr. and Mrs. Charles A. Dickson request the 
pleasure of your company at dinner on Wednes- 
day evening, August 14, at 7:30. 



(2) 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 1 53 

Mr, and Mrs. B. F. Taylor 

inviie you to meet their guest, 

Dr. Arthur D. Van Dyke, 

on Thursday evening, at 8 o'clock. 

2^5 Post Street. 



(3) 



Mr. James E. Piatt accepts with pleasure the 
very kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. B. F. Tay- 
lor to meet their guest, Dr. Arthur D. Van 
Dyke, on Thursday evening, at eight o'clock. 
Wednesday, Oct. loth. 

(4) 

Mr. James E. Piatt regrets that a previous en- 
gagement will prevent his accepting Mr. and 
Mrs. B. F. Taylor's kind invitation to meet their 
guest. Dr. Arthur D. Van Dyke, on Thursday 
evening, at eight o'clock. 

Wednesday, Oct. loth. 

(5) 

Miss Edna Bain accepts with pleasure the 

kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Charles A. 

Dickson to dinner at seven-thirty, Wednesday 

evening, August 14. 
Friday, Aug. 8th. 

The following, taken from ''The Etiquette of Corre- 
spondence/' by H. E. Gavit, are good examples of In- 
formal Invitations : — 



154 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Dear Miss Graliaui, — 

// yoii and your brother have no engagement 
for Tuesday evening, may zve hope that yovt zmll 
giz'e us the pleasure of dining zvith us quite in- 
formally at seven-thirty? 

Very sincerely yoiirs^ 

Marian Lawrence. 
Saturday, May the tenth. 
Dear Elsie, — 

May zve count on you for Thursday evening 
at eight-thirty? Felix zvill play for us, and that 
is alzvays such a treat. Do come. 

Affectionately yours, 

Marie. 
[Date.] 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

1. If two pages suffice for a letter, they should be the 
first and third pages. If the letter is long, the pages 
should be filled consecutively. 

2. The closing words of a letter should never be writ- 
ten in the margins or across the top of a page. No part 
of a letter should be written in vertical lines. Such 
eccentricities are always in bad taste. ''Good breeding 
and refinement are rarely expressed in extremes of any 
kind." 

3. Only the best quality of paper should be used in 
social correspondence. Ruled paper should not be used 
except for business correspondence. There is no paper 
in better taste nor of more enduring fashion than the 
plain white or the delicate tints of ivory and cream. 
Only black ink of the best quality should be used. 



THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 1 55 

4. Such abbreviations as rec'd, yrs, off' yours, resp'Iy, 
& (for and), etc., are not admissible. 

5. It is very seldom that one should call a letter a 
"favor.'' ''Came to hand" is a phrase of questionable 
taste. Avoid the hackne3^ed phrase, ''Hoping this will 
find you, as it leaves me, in good health.'' 

6. Though one should not be punctilious in avoiding 
the pronoun /^ it should be used sparingly. Its very fre- 
quent use savors of egotism. The passive voice of the 
verb is helpful in this. 

7. For each new topic begin a new paragraph. 

8. Do not underline words and sentences for emphasis, 
noc- indulge in apologies and long prefaces of explana- 
tion. 

9. When writing a letter of request to a mere ac- 
quaintance, or to a stranger, it is good form to enclose a 
postage-stamp. We should not impose any pecuniary 
obligation upon a stranger. 

10. The letters si, th, nd, after ordinal numerals, are 
now generally omitted in an address. Do not forget that 
when they are used they are not abbreviations. 

11. Invitations to dinner or luncheon require imme- 
diate answers ; but invitations to weddings, receptions, 
and evening entertainments require no answer in accept- 
ance, unless an answer has been requested. Written re- 
grets may be sent within three or four days after the 
receipt of the invitation. The answer is always addressed 
to the person in whose name the invitation is given. 

12. An invitation should not be answered on a visiting 
card or on a postal-card, nor on business paper or on a 
half sheet of note paper. 



156 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

13. When an invitation is given in the name of both 
husband and wife, the answer should contain an allusion 
to each ; but the envelope should be addressed to the wife 
alone. 

14. The words "Present," "Addressed," or "En Ville," 
should not be placed upon the envelope. It is a custom 
no longer observed. 

15. An occasion for a postscript (P. S.) should be 
avoided. 

16. It is not good form to begin a sentence without a 
subject; as, "Have just returned from," etc., or, "Would 
be glad to meet," etc. 

17. "Avoid flourishes and peculiar and striking capitals 
in the signature. They are an evidence of vanity and 
vulgarity, not of individuality and character, as is some- 
times imagined." 

18. Remember that written words may sometimes be- 
come very unpleasant witnesses. It is ever well that 
thinking precede writing. 



PART V. 

THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 

Every expressed thought is a sentence. 'The sen- 
tence is the mould into which all our thinking is run." 
It is the unit of thought and speech. All speaking and 
writing must, therefore, be done in sentences. We see, 
then, that the sentence is a tool which everybody has 
occasion to use. And, like all other tools, it is used to 
little purpose, if not used well. Here, as elsewhere, 
skilfur use is the reward of long and painstaking prac- 
tise. 

The purely grammatical requisites of a good sentence 
have been indicated in the chapter on ''Slips in Syntax." 
But there are other considerations in the making of sen- 
tences. As to every sentence, these questions are per- 
tinent: — • 

(a) Are the words so aptly chosen and marshaled as 
to express the thought clearly? 

(b) Does the sentence express but one central 
thought ? 

(c) Could the sentence be made to affect the ear more 
pleasantly ? 

(J) Does the sentence express the thought with due 
emphasis or force? 

(e) Is it concise? 

(f) Does it contain all needful words? 

(157) 



158 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

This chapter will be devoted to a discussion of the 
principles suggested by these questions. 

Both as to quantity and structure, sentences are of 
various kinds. As to quantity, they are long or short ; 
as to structure, they are simple, compound, or complex ; 
loose, periodic, or balanced. 

In the writings of the best authors, long and short 
sentences are duly interspersed. A long succession of 
sentences of the same length, whether they are short or 
long, is wearisome. Neither can it be determined by 
rule in what proportion long and short sentences should 
be combined. These questions must be left to the 
writer's discretion and taste. A writer must be on his 
guard, however, to keep his sentences from running to 
extremes on either side. Every subject of discourse 
contains many thoughts that lend themselves naturally 
to short sentences ; others, to long sentences. When all, 
or nearly all, the sentences are short, the rhythm is im- 
paired, and the style becomes flippant, jerky, abrupt, and 
the reader experiences a sense of nnsatisiiedness. On 
the other hand, when long sentences largely preponderate, 
the style becomes lumbering and heavy, and interpre- 
tation more difficult. The effect produced by a due • 
proportion of short sentences is to give to a passage light- 
ness, vivacity, emphasis, and ease of apprehension ; a 
due proportion of long sentences gives to it dignity, 
completeness, rhythm, and cadence. The feelings and 
the decisions of the will naturally flow into short sen- 
tences ; weighty and complex reasonings, into long sen- 
tences. 

As a rule, the first sentence of a paragraph should 
be short and pithy. It may often contain in a nutshell 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 59 

all that is explained and amplified in the succeeding sen- 
tences of the paragraph. A short sentence catches the 
eye readily. It is easily remembered. For that reason 
careful writers are wont to put the kernel of a thought 
into a short, crisp, pointed sentence. Such short sen- 
tences are usually followed up and completed with 
longer sentences of explanation, illustration, or limita- 
tion. Sometimes, however, the branches of a thought 
strike so deeply into its central trunk as to make it neces- 
sary, for the sake of oneness of efifect, to embody all in 
one sentence. 

In the following passage from Farrar's ''Life of 
Christ,'' notice how the first sentence, which is short, is 
explained and illustrated by the second, which is long : — 

''There is scarcely a scene or object familiar to the GaHlee of 
that day, which Jesus did not use as a moral illustrition of some 
glorious promise or moral law. He spoke of green fields and 
springing flowers, and the budding of the vernal trees ; of the 
red or lowering sky; of sunrise and sunset; of wind and rain; 
of night and storm; of clouds and lightning; of stream and 
river ; of stars and lamps ; of honey and salt ; of quivering bul- 
rushes and burning weeds ; of rent garments and bursting wine- 
skins ; of eggs and serpents ; of pearls and pieces of money ; of 
nets and fish. Wine and wheat, corn and oil, stewards and gar- 
deners, laborers and employers, kings and shepherds, travelers 
and fathers of families, courtiers in soft clothing and brides 
in nuptial robes — all these are found in His discourses." 

Observe how naturally, in the following excerpt, the 
short sentences, simple and vigorous, lead up to a single 
long sentence, which sums up and rounds ofif the whole 
thought. The passage is from President Lincoln's 
Gettysburg Address : — 

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth 
upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedi- 



l6o THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

cated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now 
we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, 
or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. 
We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come 
to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those 
who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is alto- 
gether fitting and proper that we should do this; but in a larger 
sense we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hal- 
low this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled 
here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. 
The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say 
here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us — 
the living — rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work 
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. 
It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remain- 
ing before us, that from these honored dead we take increased 
devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure 
of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not 
have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new 
birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the peo- 
ple, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth." 

How happily, in the extract below, from Ruskin, the 
second sentence, which is long, explicates the short sen- 
tence which precedes it. How aptly the whole is then 
touched by the short closing sentence. 

"Of all inorganic substances, acting in their own proper 
nature, and without assistance or combination, water is the most 
wonderful. If we think of it as the source of all the changeful- 
ness and beauty of clouds ; as the instrument by which the earth 
was modeled into symmetry, and its crags chiseled into grace ; 
then in the form of snow ; in the foam of the torrent — in the 
morning mist, in the broad lake and glancing river ; finally in 
that which is to all human minds the best emblem of unwearied, 
unconquerable power, the wild, various, fantastic, tameless unity 
of the sea; what shall we compare to this mighty, this universal 
element, for glory and for beauty? It is like trying to paint a 
soul." 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. l6l 

One of the advantages of the long sentence is that by 
it we are able to state in the same grammatical unity— 
in the same breath, as it were — a whole thought with all 
its essential ramifications. As an illustration, I cite the 
following from Ruskin : — 

"The work of the great spirit of nature is as deep and unap- 
proachable in the lowest as in the noblest objects; the Divine 
mind is as visible in its full energy of operation on every lowly 
bank and moldering stone, as in the lifting of the pillars of 
heaven and settling the foundations of the earth ; and to the 
rightly-perceiving mind there is the same infinity, the same 
majesty, the same power, the same unity, and the same perfec- 
tion, manifest in the casting of the clay as in the scattering of 
the cloud, in the moldering of the dust as in the kindling of the 
day-star." 

The short sentence may often be used to advantage 
for purposes of emphasis, ''the successive condensed 
assertions being like so many hammer strokes." Note 
the following illustration from Macaulay : — 

"We have had laws. We have had blood. New treasons have 
been created. The press has been shackled. The habeas corpus 
act has been suspended. Public meetings have been prohibited. 
The event has proved that these expedients were mere palliatives. 
You are at the end of your palliatives. The evil remains. It is 
more formidable than ever. What is to be done?'' 

It should be remembered that brevity is not opposed 
to many words, but useless words, — to verbiage. A 
writer whose sentences are generally short, may be 
tautological and prolix ; another whose sentences are, in 
the main, long, may be brief and forceful. It is safer, 
however, for writers of little experience to couch their 
thoughts in sentences comparatively short. It requires 

11 



1 62 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

a practised pen to construct a long sentence that is at 
the same time clear and consistent throughout. A 
writer must grow into long sentences; but he needs to 
guard against growing into too many. 

The Periodic, the Loose, the Balanced structure of 
the sentence afford opportunity not only to secure variety 
of sentence form, but to enhance the beauty, and to pro- 
mote the energy of style. A periodic sentence is one so 
constructed that neither the main thought nor the gram- 
matical construction is completed until the close of the 
sentence; as, — 

"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever 
things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things 
are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of 
good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, 
think on these things." Phil. 4 : 8. 

Observe that the foregoing sentence would not express 
a completed thought at any point before its close. In 
a periodic sentence all the subordinate elements are dis- 
posed of before the main thought, which they all qualify, 
is given. The preamble to our Federal Constitution is a 
good example. Find it, and commit it to memory. 

A Loose sentence is one so constructed that a com- 
plete thought is expressed at one or more places before 
the end; as,— 

"Milton's nature selected and drew to itself whatever was 
great and good from the parliament and from the court, from 
the conventicle and from the cloister, from the gloomy and 
sepulchral circles of the Roundheads and from the Christmas 
revel of the hospital Cavalier." 

Notice that this sentence might be brought to a full 
stop after ''great," after "good,'' after ''parliament," 
after "court," after "conventicle," after "cloister," and 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 



163 



after ''Roundheads/' and at each of these points express 
a complete thought. 

In a loose sentence the essential idea is given before 
the subordinate elements are given. It is easy in most 
cases to change a periodic sentence to a loose, and a 
loose sentence to a periodic. For example: ^'Milton 
always selected for himself the boldest literary services, 
that he might shake the foundations of debasing senti- 
ments more effectually, '^ is a loose sentence. By giving 
it the following cast, it is made periodic : ^'That he might 
shake the foundations of debasing sentiments more ef- 
fectually, Milton always selected for himself the boldest 
literary services.'' 

The following table from^ Professor A. S. Hill's 
''Principles of Rhetoric," shows how easy it is to change 
loose sentences into periodic sentences : — 



Loose. 

We came to cur journey's 
end, at last, with no small dif- 
ficulty, after much fatigue, 
through deep roads and bad 
weather. 

This was forbidden by taste, 
as well as by judgment. 

This disposition saves him 
from offending his opponents, 
and also from alienating his 
supporters. 

He kept himseh" alive with 
the fish he caught, or with the 
goats he shot. 

The world is not eternal, nor 
is it the work of chance. 



Periodic. 

At last, with no small diffi- 
culty, and after much fatigue, 
we came, through deep roads 
and bad weather, to our jour- 
ney's end. 

This was forbidden both by 
taste and by judgment. 

This disposition saves him, on 
the one hand, from offending his 
opponents, on the other hand, 
from alienating his supporters. 

He kept himself alive either 
with the fish he caught, or with 
the goats he shot. 

The world is neither eternal 
nor the work of chance. 



164 



THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 



The Romans consider religion 
a part of virtue; the Jews, virtue 
a part of religion. 

His actions were frequently 
criticized, but his character was 
above criticism. 

His word may be as good as 
his bond, but we have still to 
ask how good his bond is. 



While the Romans consider 
religion a part of virtue, the 
Jews, on the contrary, consider 
virtue a part of religion. 

Though his actions were fre- 
quently criticized, his character 
was above criticism. 

Granting that his word is as 
good as his bond, we have still 
to ask how good his bond is. 



As a succession of related thoughts may be expressed 
in a series of short sentences, or in a series of long sen- 
tences, or in sentences w^hich are now^ long, nov^ short, so, 
too, the same thoughts may be expressed in loose, or in 
periodic sentences, or in a combination of both. The 
essential flexibility and plasticity of sentences make it 
easy to give to style the '"spice" of variety. 

It should be remembered, too, that a sentence is not 
always w^holly loose or w^holly periodic. The same sen- 
tence, especially if long, may begin with the periodic 
structure and remain so to a certain point, and then be 
finished in the loose form. The following sentence is 
periodic as far as the word "beautiful," and loose from 
tnat point on: — 

"Endowed with a rare purity of intellect, a classic beauty of 
expression, a yearning tenderness toward all of God's creatures, 
no poet appeals more tenderly than Shelley to ou- love for the 
beautiful, to our respect for our fellow-men, to our heartfelt 
charity for human weakness." 

A sentence that combines both the periodic and the 
loose structure is called by some authors a compromise 
sentence. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 65 

Each of these two classes of sentences has its ad- 
vantages. A loose sentence is not necessarily a bad sen- 
tence. It is a type of structure just as legitimate and 
just as susceptible of artistic finish as the periodic. In 
perhaps every discourse there are many more loose than 
periodic sentences. Rarely does one find more than two 
successive periodic sentences, especially if the sentences 
are long. Periodic sentences need to be constantly re- 
lieved by loose ones. 

The loose structure has the advantage of being more 
natural, easy, and colloquial than the periodic. For this 
reason it is especially adapted to familiar kinds of dis- 
course, such as conversation, letters, and easy narrative. 
It is less formal and artificial than either the periodic 
or the balanced structure. 

If used to excess, however, loose sentences give style 
a careless, ragged appearance. Unless loose sentences 
are constructed with great care, they may become a mere 
string of phrases and clauses, with little or no' firmness 
or coherence. There is danger, too, when many loose 
sentences are used in succession, that all will begin in 
the same way, or end in the same way. A succession 
of loose sentences should exhibit variety of structure. 
The advantages of the periodic structure are: — 

1. Neatness and finish, especially when the sentences 
are short. 

2. It gives to long sentences -firmness, dignity, and 
impressiveness, 

3. It promotes energy of expression, since all parts of 
the sentence are made to look to one point — the close. 

4. By holding the significant idea in reserve until the 



1 66 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

qualifying details are disposed of, it excites the interest, 
and sustains the attention of the reader or hearer. 

5. It makes easy the skilful management of a large 
number of subordinate elements, since they all must be 
arranged with reference to one point — the paramount 
idea. 

The unpractised writer needs to guard himself against 
the temptation to run too many of his sentences into the 
periodic mould. An undue number of periods'^ gives to 
style a stiff, formal, artificial effect. As all the pre- 
liminary details of a period must be held in mind until 
the key-word is reached, it is easy to make the number 
too large to be carried, and the reader's attention is not 
stimulated, but distracted. When the details are many, 
the compromise form is always at hand to help the 
writer out. This period from the Bible is typical as to 
length : ''He that spared not His own Son, but delivered 
Him up for us all, how shall He not with Him also freely 
give us all things V Rom. 8 : 32. 

Besides the loose and the periodic sentence, it is neces- 
sary to give attention to the balanced sentence. A bal- 
anced sentence is one in which corresponding parts are 
made similar in form in order to place in bold relief a 
similarity or a contrast in thought. The parallel parts 
may be phrases or clauses. The chief value of the bal- 
anced structure lies in the fact that it is neat, compact, 
and symmetrical. It is pleasing to the ear and helpful 
to the memory. This fact explains why so many verses 
in the Psalms and in the book of Proverbs are so easily 
remembered. The balanced structure is a device by 



^Periodic sentences are usually called periods. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 67 

which opposite qualities of the same person or thing are 
set over against each other, and thus brought into con- 
spicuous relief. 

Notwithstanding its many advantages, the balanced 
sentence must not be used with undue frequency. The 
very rhythm of it strongly tempts one to use it where no 
actual parallelism of likeness or contrast exists. *^The 
habit of clothing similar thoughts in clauses, or phrases 
. . . of about equal length and similar structure may 
easily become a mannerism. A series of balances grows 
speedily wearisome, and becomes offensively regular." 

Dr. Johnson and Lord Macaulay were both partial 
to the balanced sentence, and often used it to excess. 
That is one of the reasons why Johnson's style is often 
stiff and artificial. But used with moderation, the bal- 
anced structure is on^ of the potent devices for securing 
vivacity and force in expression. The Bible is replete 
with the best examples of the balance. The following 
will serve as examples. You will readily recognize 
those from the Bible. 

"My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and forsake not 
the law of thy mother; for they shall be an ornament of grace 
unto thy head, and chains about thy neck." 

"The lip of truth shall be established forever; but a lying 
tongue is but for a moment." 

"There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there 
is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches." 

"Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are 
peace." 

"For he that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap cor- 
ruption ; but he that soweth to the Spirit shall of the Spirit reap 
life everlasting." 

"And the work of righteousness shall be peace ; and the effect 
of righteousness quietness and assurance forever." 



l68 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

"1 will sing unto the Lord as long as I live; I will sing praise 
to my God while I have my being." 

"Humbleness is always grace ; always dignity." 

"It was pride that changed angels into devils; it is humility 
that makes men as angels." 

"They that know God will be humble; they that know them- 
selves can not be proud." 

"The dictionary is a cemetery for dead words as well as a 
home for living ones." 

"Holiness is not the way to Christ, but Christ is the way to 
holiness." 

"If a good face is a letter of recommendation, a good heart 
is a letter of credit." 

"He who has health, has hope ; he who has hope, has every- 
thing." 

"Hurry is the mark of a weak mind ; despatch, of a strong- 
one." 

"He who receives a benefit should never forget it ; he who 
bestows one should never remember it." 

"Our thanks should be as fervent for mercies received as 
our petitions for mercies sought." 

"Better to get up late and be wide awake then, than to get 
up early and be asleep all day." 

"As the flower is before the fruit, so is faith before good 
works." 

"To find fault is easy; to do better may be difificult." 

"Bad men excuse their faults ; good men forsake theirs." 

"Nothing is so strong as gentleness ; nothing so gentle as real 
strength." 

"Our greatest glory consists not in never falling, but in rising 
every time we fall." 

"The best thing to give to your enemy is forgiveness; to an 
opponent, tolerance; ... to your child, a good example; to 
a father, deference; to your mother, that which will gladden her 
heart; to yourself, respect; to all men, charity." 

"Greatness lies not in being strong, but in the right using of 
strength." 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 69 

In the following excerpt from Ruskin's ''Queen of the 
Air/' observe how many contrasted clauses, phrases, and 
even words, are balanced : — 

''I believe we can nowhere find a better type of a perfectly 
free creature than in the common house-fly. Nor free only, but 
brave ; and irreverent to a degree which I think no human repub- 
lican could by any philosophy exalt himself to. There is no 
courtesy in him; he does not care whether it is king or clown 
whom he teases; and in every step of his quick mechanical 
march, and every pause of his resolute observation, there is one 
and the same expression of perfect egotism, perfect independence 
and self-confidence, and conviction of the world's having been 
made for flies. Strike at him with your hand, and to him, the 
mechanical fact and external aspect of the matter is what to you 
it would be if an acre of red clay, ten feet thick, tore itself up 
from the ground in one massive field, hovered over you in the 
air for a second, and came crashing down with an aim. That is 
the external aspect of it ; the inner aspect, to his fly's mind, is of 
quite natural and unimportant occurrence— one of the momentary 
conditions of his active life. He steps out of the way of your 
hand, and alights on the back of it. You can not terrify him, 
nor govern him, nor persuade him, nor convince him. He has 
his own positive opinion on all matters; not an unwise one, 
usually, for his own ends ; and will ask no advice of yours. He 
has no work to do — no tyrannical instinct to obey. The earth- 
worm has his digging; the bee, her gathering and building; the 
spider, her cunning network ; the ant, her treasury and accounts. 
All these are comparative slaves, or people of vulgar business. 
But your fly, free in the air, free in the chamber — a black incar- 
nation of caprice — wandering, investigating, flitting, flirting, feast- 
ing at his will, with rich variety of choice in feast, from the 
heaped sweets in the grocer's window to those of the butcher's 
back yard, and from the galled place on your cab-horse's back 
to the brown spot in the road, from which, as the hoof disturbs 
him, he rises with angry republican buzz — what freedom is like 
his?" 

Each of the foregoing balanced sentences that con- 



170 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

tain contrasts is what rhetoricians call a figure of an- 
tithesis. 

Let the student now try his hand at turning the fol- 
lowing loose sentences into the periodic mould : — 

We have no opportunity to make money or to spend 
money. 

Why should he disgrace himself and his friends by get- 
ting money in this way, when he could have whatever he 
needed by asking for it? 

You must act promptly, taking the risk of mistake, or 
else you must perhaps let slip the only opportunity that 
you will have to gain your object. 

There are to be accommodations for a larger attend- 
ance at the next football game than ever before, I hear. 

The number of subjects to be taught multiplies, and so 
must the means of instruction be increased. 

The enemies of the public school are in favor of this 
measure ; the friends of the school are opposed to it. 

He had the years of youth, yet he had the wisdom of 
age. 

The fire swept on, and with its advance gained force 
and range, and left in ashes the town, and in terrible des- 
olation the surrounding country for miles in every direc- 
tion. 

He came now to the crisis of his life, struggled, fell 
back, got courage again, made another vigorous efifort, 
stood firm and strong against the heavy odds, and finally 
conquered. 

He walks rapidly so as to get the benefit of the exercise. 

The general was now compelled to take tlie defensive, 
having been surprised by the arrival of the fresh troops 
on the opposite side. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. I7I 

I should urge you to come out of your sick-room, get 
the strength of this invigorating air, enjoy this constant 
sunshine, and know again what it is to Hve, if you were 
here. 

He came upon me suddenly so that I had no time to 
avoid him or to prepare for him. 

What a number of men is in this degrading business 
who ought to be able to do something worthy of human 
beings. 

These young men had been trained at home to prompt- 
ness, diligence, and honesty ; and so, when thrown upon 
their own resources in this new country, they soon showed 
in their rise to wealth and influence the value of early 
discipline. 

There are many things taught in these days which we 
may fail to know without suffering from our ignorance. 

He spoke eloquently, and so won over the jury to his 
side. 

Rigorous discipline is essential, not only to success, but 
to safety in the army and the navy. 

She has a sweet, sympathetic voice, and therefore gives 
pleasure to all her hearers who are not critical. 

It is impossible for a new man, if at all indolent, to 
have any success here, because of the scarcity of open- 
ings, the close competition, and the energy of the native 
inhabitants. 

The mind is crippled and contracted by perpetual atten- 
tion to the same ideas; just as any act or posture, long 
continued, will disfigure the limbs. 

Language is a dead letter till the spirit within the poet 
himself breathes through it, gives it voice, and makes it 
audible to the very mind. 



172 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

''That man, I think, has had a hberal education who has been 
so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, 
and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechan- 
ism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, 
with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order ; 
ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and 
spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; 
whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and funda- 
mental truths of Nature and of the laws of her operations ; one 
who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose pas- 
sions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant 
of a tender conscience ; who has learned to love all beauty, 
whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect 
others as himself.'^ — Huxley. 

When related words, or phrases, or clauses, or sen- 
tences are placed in the order of their importance or in- 
tensity, the least important standing first, we have what 
is called a Climax. A climax helps* to make the expres- 
sion of thought vigorous. When the weaker terms are 
placed after the stronger, the expression becomes flat, 
insipid. Such an arrangement is called bathos, or anti- 
climax. The word climax is from a Greek word mean- 
ing ladder. The derivation suggests that a climax is 
a form of expression in which the parts graze in strength 
and significance to the close. This arrangement satis- 
fies the ear and stimulates the mind. 

The anti-climax is sometimes intentionally used to 
give humor or satire to a statement. The climax pro- 
duces an ascending effect ; the anti-climax a descending. 
The one waxes ; the other wanes. 

In the following sentence the thought waxes, and is 
therefore a climax: 'Tt is an outrage to bind a Roman 
citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime ; to put him 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 73 

to death is almost parricide ; but to crucify him — what 
shall I call it?'' 

In the following the thought wanes, and is an anti- 
climax : He lost his friends, his money, his dog, and his 
jack-knife at one fell swoop.. 

The following will serve to illustrate more fully the 
climacteric structure : — 

"Since Concord was lost, friendship was lost ; fidelity was 
lost ; liberty was lost — all was lost !" 

"I plead for the rights of laboring men, for the rights of 
struggling women, for the rights of helpless children." 

"What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! how 
infinite in faculty ! in form and moving, how express and admir- 
able ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a 
god!" 

"They gaze, turn giddy, rave, and die." 

"All his books are written in a learned language ; in a lan- 
guage which nobody hears from his mother or his nurse; in a 
language in which nobody ever quarrels, or drives bargains, or 
makes love; in a language in which nobody ever thinks.'' 

"The place was worthy of such a trial. It was the great hall 
of William Rufus, the hall which had resounded with acclama- 
tions at the inauguration of thirty kings ; the hall which had 
witnessed the just sentence of Bacon and the just absolution of 
Somers ; the hall where the eloquence of Strafford had for a 
moment awed and melted a victorious party inflamed with just 
resentment ; the hall where Charles had confronted the High 
Court of Justice with the placid courage which has half re- 
deemed his fame." 

"And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds 
blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell ; and great was the 
fall of it." Matt. ']\2.'j. 

As a final example, I insert the whole of the thirteenth 
chapter of i Corinthians. Observe not only the climaxes 
it contains, but notice especially how simple, crisp, and 



174 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

idiomatic is the diction. Commit the whole passage to 
memory. Practise the elocution of it: — 

'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and 
have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkhng 
cymbal. And though I have the gift of prophecy, and under- 
stand all mysteries, and all kriov^ledge; and though I have all 
faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, 
I am nothing. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the 
poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not 
charity, it profiteth me nothing. Charity suffereth long, and is 
kind; charity envieth not; charity vaunteth not itself, is not 
puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, 
is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil; rejoiceth not in iniquity, 
but rejoiceth in the truth; beareth all things, believeth all things, 
hopeth all things, endureth all things. Charity never f aileth ; 
but whether there be prophecies, they shall fail ; whether there 
be tongues, they shall cease ; whether there be knowledge, it 
shall vanish away. For we know in part, and we prophesy in 
part. But when that which is perfect is come, then that which 
is in part shall be done away. When I was a child, I spake 
as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but 
when I became a man, I put away childish things. For now 
we see through a glass, darkly ; but then face to face ; now I 
know in part, but then shall I know even as also I am known. 
And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the 
greatest of these is charity." 



Note. — The author can think of no exercise more profitable to 
the student at this point than a thorough drill in the expression — 
the elocution — of the most interesting examples of Balance and 
Climax given above. In such a drill the emotior.s, as well as the 
understanding, are called into play. Good 'reading is far more an 
affair of the heart than of the head. No one ever becomes im- 
pressive as a reader or speaker until his intellect becomes gendy 
yet completely suffused with emotion. The head has but two 
eyes, the heart a thousand. There is only one avenue over which 
the student can find his w^ay into the heart of a piece of genuine 
literature, and that is through his own heart. Doctor Corson has 
said that the only test of one's apprehension of a literar}^ selection 
is his ability to give it natural, and hence effective, expression. In 
short, the power to express thought wdth due force, with propriety 
and ease, is the badge of real scholarship. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 75 

Another way of securing energy of expression is to 
give sentences occasionally the interrogative form in- 
stead of the declarative. Such a question is not asked 
for information. It is simply an emphatic way of affirm- 
ing or denying something. It is generally referred to 
as the figure of Interrogation. The judicious use of this 
figure helps to insure variety of sentence structure, and 
thus relieve monotony of expression. If Jesus had said, 
''The life is more than meat, and the body is more than 
raiment," He would have expressed the thought clearly, 
but not so forcefully as He did by putting the affirma- 
tion thus : 'Ts not the life more than meat, and the body 
than raiment?'' Paul's questions, ''Who goeth a war- 
fare any time at his own charges? who planteth a vine- 
yard, and eateth not the fruit thereof?" are an emphatic 
way of saying, "No man goeth a warfare any time at his 
own charges ; no man planteth a vineyard and" eateth not 
the fruit thereof." Paul was a master of effective 
speech. He understood and employed all the resources 
of the Greek tongue. Perhaps that is one of the reasons 
why the Holy Spirit gave the greater part of the New 
Testament through Paul. 

What a strong denial is expressed in, "Can the Ethio- 
pian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?" How 
emphatic is Patrick Henry's denial, when put thus : "Is 
life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
price of chains and slavery?" "Who shall lay anything 
to the charge of God's elect?" is a vigorous way of say- 
ing, "No one shall lay anything to the charge of God's 
elect." 

The literature of oratory, as well as sacred literature. 



176 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

is replete with questions used for the purpose of giving 
point and animation to language. 

It is desirable, sometimes, to throw into striking prom- 
inence a particular word, phrase, or clause of a sentence. 
This is done by placing such element in the most em- 
phatic position in the sentence. Any element of a sen- 
tence is thrown into bold relief by placing it out of its 
ordinary position. By this device we can throw the em-, 
phasis on almost any part of the sentence we wish. Such 
change of position is called Inversion. 

The most emphatic places in a sentence are the begin- 
ning and the end. These places catch the eye most read- 
ily. At the beginning of a sentence or clause is the 
ordinary position of the subject; at the end, that of the 
predicate. Hence, the subject is emphasized by being 
placed near or at the close of the sentence ; the predicate, 
by being placed at the beginning. The predicate ad- 
jective, or the object of a verb may be placed before the 
verb; the modifier after the noun modified, etc. The 
principle of emphasis may be stated thus : Give the im- 
portant elements of the sentence the important phces. 

Of this principle the translators of the Bible have, in 
many instances, availed themselves; as, ''Blessed is he 
that cometh in the name of the Lord," and, ''Silver and 
gold have I none ; but such as I have give I thee." How 
much these sentences would be enfeebled by altering the 
arrangement into, "He that cometh in the name of the 
Lord is blessed," and, "I have neither silver nor gold, but 
I give thee what I have." See, also, the beatitudes, in 
the fifth chapter of Matthew. 

Note the distinction given to the adverbs on and for- 
ward in this sentence by putting them before their re- 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 



177 



spective verbs : ''On swept the infantry — forward 
streamed the cavalry." How conspicuous the adverb 
seldom in, ''Seldom had such a sight been seen in Rome." 
Compare, "It may seem impossible, but I am determined 
to undertake the task," with, "Impossible as it may seem, 
the task I shall yet undertake." How much more spring 
and vigor in the second form than in the first. "Great 
is the Lord, and greatly to be praised" would lose not 
only in force, but in euphony as well, if arranged into 
"The Lord is great, and He is to be praised greatly." 
Note the loss in expressiveness when, "Scoundrel though 
he was, he still had some sense of honor," is changed to, 
"He still had some sense of honor, though he was a 
scoundrel." 

The subordinate clause of a complex sentence should, 
as a rule, precede the principal clause ; as, "Small though 
the garrison zvas, they resolved to hold the fortress 
against an army ten times their number,'' and, "// ye 
knozv .these things, happy are ye if ye do them." 

Observe how much more emphatic the following sen- 
tences are as constructed in the first column than as 
constructed in the second. The examples are taken from 
Scott and Denney's "Composition-Rhetoric" : — 



I. 

1. Though he was an invet- 
erate smoker himself, he would 
preach to his congregation on 
the evils of smoking. 

2. If his acts did not belie his 
words, he would exert greater 
influence. 



II. 

1. He would preach to his 
congregation on the evils of 
smoking, though he was an in- 
veterate smoker himself. 

2. He would exert greater in- 
fluence if his acts did not belie 
his words. 



12 



178 



THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 



3. When the time for action 
has come, the people always 
rise to the occasion. 

4. Wherever you put him, he 
proves himself competent. 

5. Provided you have plenty 
of good ideas, it is not very 
hard to write. 

6. The hand of death was 
upon him; he knew it; and the 
only wish which he uttered was 
that sword in hand he might die. 

7. It is always difficult to sep- 
arate the literary character of a 
man who lives in our own time 
from his personal character. It 
is peculiarly difficult in the case 
of Lord Byron to make this 
separation. 



3. The people always rise to 
the occasion, when the time for 
action has come. 

4. He proves himself compe- 
tent wherever you put him. 

5. It is not very hard to write, 
provided you have plenty of 
good ideas. 

6. The hand of death was 
upon him; he knew it; and the 
only wish which he uttered was 
that he might die sword in hand, 

7. It is always difficult to sep- 
arate the literary character of a 
man who lives in our own time 
from his personal character. It 
is peculiarly difficult to make 
this separation in the case of 
Lord Byron. 



An appeal to the ear is helpful in finding the most 
emphatic position for the most emphatic parts of a sen- 
tence. 

The writer needs to guard against making too many 
inversions. He may emphasize so much as not to em- 
phasize at all. Energy oi expression is not always desir- 
able. Many sentences are most emphasized when not 
emphasized at all. You have heard the paradox, ''So 
many things strike that nothing strikes.'' The princi- 
ple here expressed is especially applicable to emphasis. 

Brevity conduces to both energy and neatness of sen- 
tences. All needless words are so much dead weight. 
To overload a sentence with words is to dilute it. What- 
ever does not strengthen enfeebles. "The habit of writ- 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 79 

ing compactly, of going straight to the point, of saying 
just what one has to say and then of stopping, is not al- 
ways easy to acquire." Sentences concise in form and 
pregnant with thought are the weapons of a speaker or 
writer who is thoroughly in earnest. Sentences made up 
with ''picked and packed" words, always cut. Brevity is 
not only the soul of wit, but the fire of fervency. 

Professor Mead wrote: ''Brevity does not, however, 
consist precisely in using few words, but in saying noth- 
ing superfluous. A narrative of ten pages is short if it 
contains nothing but what is necessary. A narrative of 
twenty lines is long if it can be contained in ten." 

Brevity is opposed to tautology, verbosity, and pro- 
lixity. "Tautology consists in repeating, with mere 
change of words, what has been already said ;" as, "He 
was very fastidious and particular and hard to please/' 
Here "particular" and "hard to please" repeat what is 
already expressed by "fastidious." In each of the fol- 
lowing sentences the italicized words express virtually the 
same idea. Note the resulting feebleness of the sen- 
tences. 

The teacher criticises and blames and finds fault zvith 
the pupils continually. 

The king issued a royal edict. 

His answer was vague and indeiinite. 

The universai testimony of all men is that of all poetry 
Milton's is the most sublime. 

He was always employed in alleviating and relieving 
the wants of others. 

Verbosity consists in using words that do not neces- 
sarily repeat ideas, but are yet wholly superfluous. In 



l8o THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

the sentences below, the itaHcized words should be cut 
out : — 

Who doubts but that intemperance is growing? 

He fell off of the horse. 

Do you think he will accept of the gift ? 

I wrote to him a long letter last week. 

Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused the 
honor of it. 

I do not doubt but that he is sincere. 

It is evident that we must open up the whole question 
again. 

The different departments of science and of art mutu- 
ally reflect light on each other. 

They returned back again to the same city from whence 
they came forth. 

From whence came they? 

I detected its flavor without even the tasting of it. 

I shall not waste my strength for nothing. 

Prolixity consists in descending into unnecessary de- 
tails, — in giving prominence to insignificant particulars. 
A prolix writer does not seem able to discriminate be- 
tween the essentials and the non-essentials of a subject. 
He magnifies trifles at the expense of what is really im- 
portant. Prolixity is, in effect at least, a synonym of 
tediousness. A bloated style is a heavy style, and a 
heavy style never fails to repel readers. I cite the fol- 
lowing example from Professor Phelps : — 

^'A committee on street railways reports to the Legislature of 
New York in this manner : 'It is not to be denied that any sys- 
tem which demands the propulsion of cars at a rapid rate, at an 
elevation of fifteen or twenty feet, is not entirely consistent, in 
the public estimation, with the greatest attainable immunity from 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. l8l 

the dangers of transportation/ No style deserves to be called 
perspicuous which needs a second reading. This specimen does 
so. What is the sense of it expressed shortly? Abandon the 
negative circumlocution, exchange long words for short ones, 
and speak without indirection. Then the statement is reduced 
to this : Tt is true that people think that a railway twenty feet 
above the street is dangerous.' That is all that the honorable 
committee meant. But it does not sound elaborate; therefore, 
the idea was bloated into the aldermanic diction." 

Brevity may be secured by compressing clauses into 
phrases, and phrases into words ; by using the most apt 
of a number of synonyms; by substituting a word in 
apposition for a relative clause; by the skilful use of 
figurative expressions ; by selecting only suggestive par- 
ticulars ; and by avoiding the use of roundabout expres- 
sions, — usually called by that long word circumlocution. 

Read the following, with the italicized parts left out, 
and note the gain in expressiveness. The examples are 
from ''Rhetoric; Its Theory and Practise,'' by Phelps 
and Frink: — 

The reason why she came home was on account of her 
illness. 

The best explanation of his conduct is to be attributed to 
his early associations. 

I shall go from thence to Boston. 

From whence did it come ? 

You can do it equally as well. 

She is a widow woman with several children. 

It has ragged extremities at both ends. 

They both came to see me to-day. 

You and I both agree in this instance. 

In the universal patriotism of all our people is the 
nation's bulwark. 



1 82 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

You have my gratefitl thanks a7td sincere gratitude for 
this favor. 

All my iviends ivithoiit exception are invited. 

For two men to have precisely the same name is a great 
inconvenience to both of them. 

Our own littleness and insignificance seems never so 
evident as when in a great crowd of many other persons 
who know nothing of us and who care nothing for us. 

This is an original recipe of his own. 

He bears this with great equanimity of mind. 

We ought to respect an old veteran zvho has fought for 
us. 

This has been thought to be a universal panacea for 
every political evil. 

The wrong was too intolerable to be borne. 

He has returned again to us. 

They all unanimously consented to the change. 

A gale of zvind took off the unfinished roof of his prison 
house. 

There is a fortune in a nezv discovery. 

''Network is anything reticulated or decussated at equal 
distances zvith interstices betzveen the intersections.'' 

The different branches of study in this course mutually 
reflect light on each other. 

He has been heard to reiterate again and again the 
story in which he gives an account of the impediments 
and hindrances that obstructed his zvay to the iinal suc- 
cess in which he at last won his wealth and reward. 

The wealth of this man in its rich accumulations has 
hidden and obscured from the public gaze the unscrupu- 
lous a7td unzvorthy means by which it was gathered and 
acquired. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 83 

In his habitual silence on this subject, ivhich comes 
from his taciturn disposition, he simply reveals a char- 
acteristic unwillingness to lay open his mind to others. 

A writer may, however, be too concise to be clear, or 
even forceful. Professor Carpenter says that ''young 
waiters, especially those who try to be what is loosely 
called 'practical,' are often as likely to use too few words 
as too many." An experienced lawyer once said, "Brev- 
ity is sometimes overrated. The number of a man's 
words should be like the length of a blanket, — enough to 
cover the bed and to tuck in besides.'' One may forget 
"that a piece of writing may be so condensed as to be 
dense." "Verbosity," says Professor E. H. Lewis, "robs 
a theme of force; deficiency robs it of force and clear- 
ness." The omission of only a word or two often results 
in ambiguity. If I should say that I met the "secretary 
and treasurer" this morning, yO'U would be in doubt as to 
whether I meant one person or two. The question, 
"Have you more interest in him than others?" might 
mean, "Have you more interest in him than others have?" 
or, "Have you more interest in him than you have in 
others ?" Mr. Warner once said, "It makes one as hun- 
gry as one of Scott's novels." Strange that any of Scott's 
novels should ever get hungry. He meant, "It makes one 
as hungry as does one of Scott's novels." The main part 
of an infinitive should not be omitted at the end of a sen- 
tence ; as, "He ate when he wished to," should be, "He 
ate when he wished to eat.'' The preposition at must 
not be omitted before home in such constructions as, "He 
boards and sleeps at home." The preposition should not 
be omitted when used with days of the month ; as, "The 
war began on the nineteenth of April." When two or 



184 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

more connected nouns denote things that are to be dis- 
tinguished from each other or emphasized, the article 
must be inserted before each noun; as: ''The man was 
obHged to choose between a black and a blue suit." "The 
days of Charles II were the golden days of the coward, 
the bigot, and the slave. The omission of ''that'' in sen- 
tences like the following, defeats clearness : "He chose 
between the lot of the rich and that of the poor." 

In spite of what was said under Brevity, a mere 
Repetition of adjectives, prepositions, no'uns, pronouns, 
or verbs, often has the effect of giving distinctness, di- 
rectness, prominence, euphony, or force to a statement. 
It is a device that, in order to serve its purpose, must be 
used with great skill. It is wholly a matter of literary 
taste and judgment. Observe the effect of the repetition 
indicated in the following sentences. Some of the repe- 
titions are necessary to save the sentence from ambiguity. 
The examples are all from standard authors. 

Every ancient and every modern language has con- 
tributed something of grace, of energy, or of music to 
Milton's poetry. 

Did any brave Englishman who "rode into the jaws 
of death" at Balaklava serve England more truly than 
did Florence Nightingale? 

The works of Clarendon and of Hume are the most 
authoritative and the most popular historical works in 
our language. 

In America, millions of Englishmen were at war with 
the country from which their blood, their language, and 
their institutions were derived. 

If civil society be the offspring of convention^ that 
convention must be its law. That convention must limit 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 85 

and modify all the descriptions of constitution which are 
formed under it. 

Those who drove James from his throne, who seduced 
his army, zvho ahenated his friends, zi^ho imprisoned him 
in his palace, who broke in upon his very slumbers by 
imperious messages, and who pursued him with fire and 
sword from one part of the empire to another, were his 
nephew and his two daughters. 

Gentlemen, I am a Whig, a Massachusetts Whig, a 
Faneuil Hall Whig, a Revolutionary Whig, a constitu- 
tional Whig. If you break up the Whig party, sir, 
where am / to go ? 

Such are their ideas, such their religion, such their 
laws. 

''For this people's heart is waxed gross, and their ears 
are dull of hearing, and their eyes they have closed ; lest 
at any time they should see with their eyes, and hear with 
their ears, and should understand with their heart, and 
should be converted, and I should heal them." 

Note the happy effect of repeating charity, in the 
thirteenth chapter of i Corinthians. 

To use specific words instead of generic words, when 
practicable, makes a writer's style more vivid and forcible. 
There is very little difference between specific words and 
concrete words ; between generic words and abstract 
words. Sound is generic ; creak, buzz, slam, clank, 
crash, roar, scream, rustle, etc., are specific. Ani- 
mal, plant, Jlozifer, man, are generic; fox, iz/y, rose, John 
Brozvn, are specific. Most of our general and abstract 
words are of Latin origin. Most of our specific and 
concrete words are of Anglo-Saxon birth. Each class 
has its special uses. 



1 86 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

By sometimes substituting specific for generic terms, 
a writer can make his diction more graphic and ani- 
mated. Specific words, being narrower and more sensu- 
ous than generic words, are more easily grasped. They 
suggest mental pictures and images. They summon the 
eye or the ear to assist the mind in the work of interpret- 
ing them. Being more familiar to most persons, they 
are necessarily more interesting than their abstract neigh- 
bors. 

To say, ''The crescent is waning before the cross,'' is 
more animated than ''Mohammedanism is disappearing 
before the progress of Christianity/' The Psalmist might 
have exclaimed, ''Thou dost preserve me," "protect me," 
"befriend me," but how much more forcefully he ex- 
pressed the same thoughts by saying, "Thou art my 
rock," "my tower," "my fortress," "my shield." How 
much more vivid is "He fought like a tiger" than "He 
fought like an animal." Jesus uses lily as representative 
of all flowers when He says, "Consider the lilies, how 
they grow," etc. 

What a mental picture is, evoked by the words, "In 
the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread." How indis- 
tinct in comparison are the words, "With hard work shalt 
thou earn the food thou eatest." 

The following will serve further to illustrate this prin- 
ciple : — 

I told him to his beard that he had deceived me. 
There are tongues in trees, sermons in stones^ books in 
brooks, and good in everything. If you have tears, 
prepare to shed them now. The palace should not frown 
upon the cottage. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or 
iigs of thistlesf The cattle upon a thousand hills are 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 87 

His. Gray hairs should be respected. They strain at a 
gnat, and szvallozv a camel. The zvolf also shall dwell 
with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the 
kid; the cow and the bear shall feed together. Cincin- 
natus followed the plozv. Instead of the thorn shall 
come up the fir tree, instead of the brier shall come 
up the myrtle tree. Ye are the salt of the earth. 
Strike while the iron is hot. In these days bayonets 
think. She was a sprightly maid of sixteen summers. 
Strike for your altars and your Hres. The pulpit and 
the bench shoiuld be above suspicion. Fiercely he 
brandished his glittering steel. The bullet should give 
way to the ballot. Take My yoke upon you, and learn 
of Me. God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes. 

The most of these sentences are also examples of the 
figure of Metonymy. 

The employment of suggestive Epithets, to a moderate 
extent, is conducive to beauty as well as vigor of ex- 
pression. The examples below will sufficiently explain 
what suggestive epithets are. 

''Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek.'' — Milton. 

''The shrill-edged shriek of a mother." — Tennyson. 

"Burly^ doling bumblebee." — Emerson. 

"Who take the ruffian billows by the top." — Shake- 
speare. 

"I stole from court, cat-footed through the town." — 
Tennyson. 

"The star-dogged moon." — Coleridge. 

"Flax for the gossiping looms." — Longfellozv. 

"But to me, and my thought, it is wider 
Than the star-sown vague of space." 

— Lowell. 



t88 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

One of the most common and useful devices for pur- 
poses of explanation and description is that of pointing 
out a likeness between two things that are in all other 
respects unlike. 

Such a comparison is termed a Simile. The compar- 
ison is usually expressed by such words as so, as, like, 
just so, and as — so. It is a device that was much used 
by the Teacher of teachers, as when He said, ''O Jeru- 
salem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets and ston- 
est them that are sent unto thee, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth 
her chickens under her wings, and ye would not.'' Read 
the thirteenth chapter of Matthew, and notice the many 
similes employed to make clear the various aspects of the 
kingdom of heaven. In the closing words of the sermon 
on the mount, are two bold similes, which are so well 
known that I need not cite them. Similes and metaphors 
shine like stars throughout the Old Testament. How apt 
and beautiful is the one found in Isaiah 55 : 10, 11 : ''For 
as the rain cometh down, and the snow from heaven, and 
returneth not thither, but watereth the earth, and mak- 
eth it bring forth and bud, that it may give seed to the 
sower, and bread to the eater; so shall My word be that 
goeth forth out of My mouth ; it shall not return unto 
Me void, but it shall accomplish that which I please, and 
it shall prosper in the thing whereto I sent it." How 
beautifully apt is this : ''My doctrine shall drop as the 
rain. My speech shall distil as the dew, as the small rain 
upon the tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass." 
Deut. 32:2. See also verses 11 and 12. 

Note the beauty and aptness of the following cluster 
of similes from the fourteenth chapter of Hosea : — 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 89 

''I will be as the dew unto Israel ; he shall grow as 
the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon. His 
branches shall spread, and his beauty shall be as the olive 
tree, and his smell as Lebanon. They that dwell under 
his shadow shall return ; they shall revive as the corn, and 
grow as the vine ; the scent thereof shall be as the wine 
of Lebanon/' 

Observe how the similes given below serve to embellish 
as well as to clarify thought. 

''Jesus uttered words that stir the soul, as summer 
dews call up the faint and sickly grass."— T/^^o Parker. 
''Men whose lives glided on, like rivers that water the 
woodlands, darkened by shadows of earth, but reflect- 
ing an image of heaven." — Longfellow. 

Of the village preacher. Goldsmith wrote : — 
"As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, 
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm. 
Though round its heart the rolling clouds are spread, 
Eternal sunshine settles on its head." 

'^As water does a sponge, so the moonlight 
Fills the void, hollow, universal air." — Shelley. 

Wordsworth wrote of Milton : — 

"Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart ; 
Thou hadst a voice whose sound wasHike the sea, 
Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free." 

"The happy associations of my early life, that before 
lay scattered, take beautiful shapes, like iron dust at the 
approach of the magnet." 

One can see the white-dusted miller in this simile from 
1 ennyson : — 

"Him, like the zvorking-bee in blossom dust, 
Blanched with his mill, they found." 



190 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

The simile's nearest neighbor is the Metaphor. The 
two figures are ahke in essence. Both are based on com- 
parison. In a simile the comparison is formally stated ; 
in a metaphor it is implied. We use a metaphor when, 
instead of saying that one thing is like another in some 
particular, we say that it is the other, or speak of it as 
though it were the other. A metaphor is calling one 
thing by the name of another, for the purpose of making 
a deeper, more vivid, more picturesque impression on the 
mind of the reader or the hearer. A metaphor is really 
a compressed simile. The simile is especially conducive 
to clearness ; the metaphor, to energy ; both, to elegance. 

Of all the figures of speech, the metaphor is the most 
serviceable. All literature is packed with metaphors. 
It is difficult to write a dozen lines without using one. 
In truth, nine-tenths of our English words that are of 
classical origin, are metaphors in disguise — faded meta- 
phors. What was once their literal meaning has been 
lost, and their secondary or metaphorical signification 
alone remains. 

When Goethe wrote, ''Kindness is the golden chain by 
which society is bound together,'' he employed a meta- 
phor. If he had written, ''Kindness is like a chain ; it 
binds society together,'' he would have employed a simile. 

Simile : "vSpare moments are like gold-dust, — small, but 
precious." 

Metaphor: "Spare moments are the gold-dust of time." 

Metaphors are particularly useful in giving form and 
tangibility to abstract ideas ; as when David says, "Thy 
Word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path," 
"The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want," and "The 
Lord God is a sun and a shield." "Prayer is the key 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. I9I 

of the morning and the bolt of the night/' wrote Beecher. 
'Trayer" is something abstract, but a ''key" and a ''bolt'' 
are concrete enough. How this metaphor helps us to 
grasp one of the many good offices of prayer ! The 
metaphor helps not only the understanding, but also the 
memory. A thought expressed in an appropriate meta- 
phor is easily remembered-. There is something about 
an apt metaphor that makes it "stick." Metaphors are 
also conducive to brevity. Were it not for the meta- 
phorical construction, many of the most common thoughts 
would have to be expressed in a long, roundabout way. 

In the light of what has been said, study the following 
examples of metaphor : — 

"Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being 
eminent." 

"We are the prisoners of ideas." 

"He is the very pineapple of politeness." 

"The world's a bubble, and the life of man less than a 
span." 

"Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, 
and some few to be chewed and digested." 

"Habit is . . . the enormous fly-wheel of society." 

"His mind was wax to receive impressions, and mar- 
ble to retain them." 

"For what is your life? It is even a vapor, that ap- 
peareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away." 
James 4 : 14. 

"But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give 
him shall never thirst ; but the water that I shall give 
him shall be in him a well of water springing up into 
everlasting life." John 4 : 14. 

"He [God] has furnace fires — kind furnace fires they 



192 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

are, though they seem terrible to us — fires of disappoint- 
ment and trouble, of grief and sickness and failure. Into 
these fires He puts us, and if we are the genuine lime- 
stone, fit to make mortar of, away go those ill-smelling 
gases, — obstinacy, self-conceit, selfishness, pride, — and we 
come out of the dreadful kiln — quicklime/' — A. R. Wells. 

There is a species of metaphor that consists in attribut- 
ing the qualities of animals or of persons to inanimate 
objects, or in attributing human qualities to mere animals. 
Such a metaphor is known by the term Personification. 
The following examples are worth being committed to 
memory : — • 

'Tor ye shall go out with joy, and be led forth with 
peace; the mountains and the hills shall break forth be- 
fore you into singing, and all the trees of the field shall 
clap their hands.'' Isa. 55 : 12. 

''Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wondrous tale ; 
And nightly to the Hstening earth, 
Repeats the story of her birth ; 
While all the stars that 'round her burn, 
And all the planets in their turn, 
Confirm the tidings as they roll. 
And spread the truth from pole to pole. 

"What though in solemn silence all 
Move 'round this dark terrestrial ball? 
What though no real voice nor sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found? 
In reason's ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious voice, 
Forever singing as they shine, 
'The hand that made us is divine.' " 
— Addison. 

"Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God." 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 93 

*^To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language; for his gayer hours 
She has a voice of gladness, and a smile. 
And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And healing sympathy that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware." 

— Bryant. 

When his emotions are aroused, a writer sometimes 
addresses absent persons as though they were present, 
the dead as though they were living, and impersonal 
things as though they were personal. 

Such an address is what is meant by the figure of 
Apostrophe. Byron's ''Apostrophe to the Ocean'' is too 
well known to quote. Longfellow's apostrophe to the 
Union, under the figure of a ship, is also familiar. The 
Old Testament afifords many examples. Read David's 
mournful address to his dead son Absalom. A good ex- 
ample is the first two verses of Isaiah 52, which I 
quote : — • 

"Awake, awake ; put on thy strength, O Zion ; put on 
thy beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city; for 
henceforth there shall no more come into thee the uncir- 
cumcised and the unclean. Shake thyself from the dust ; 
arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem ; loose thyself from the 
bands of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion." 

The following lines the poet Halleck addressed to his 
dead friend, the poet Drake : — 

"Green be the turf above thee, 

Friend of my better days ! 
None knew thee but to love thee, 
None named thee but to praise." 

"O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?" 
13 



194 '^HE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Remember that only such apostrophes as are the spon- 
taneous expression of intense feehng are legitimate. 
Any other would smack so much of design as to disgust 
the reader. 

Strong feeling sometimes expresses itself in exaggera- 
tion, not to deceive, but to impress the reader, as when 
David exclaims, ''Rivers of water run down my eyes 
because they keep not Thy law." An exaggerated state- 
ment of this kind is known by the term Hyperbole. Of 
Saul and Jonathan David said, ''They were swifter than 
eagles, they were stronger than lions.'' In Shakespeare 
we have, "Falstaflf, thou globe of flesh, spotted o'er with 
continents of sin." All trite or forced hyperboles serve 
only to deaden the reader's interest. If used too fre- 
quently, they loise their force. 

Another figure that tends to make discourse keen and 
vivid is the Epigram. The term is applied to any terse, 
pointed saying having the nature of a proverb. The 
more pungent epigrams are those in which there is an 
apparent contradiction between the form of the language 
and the meaning really conveyed. An epigram of the 
latter sort has the nature of a paradox. The following 
verse will help us grasp the spirit of the epigram : — 

"An epigram should be, if right, 
Short, simple, pointed, keen, and bright, — 

A lively little thing! 
Like wasp, with taper body, bound 
By 'lines — not many — neat and round ; 

A\\ ending in a sting." 

Reflect on the epigrams below until you see their sig- 
nificance, their spicy aptness. Note the play on words in 
some of them. Some are also metaphorical. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 95 

1. He Spent his life trying to shoot big bullets from 
a small-bored gun. 

2. Verbosity is cured by a large vocabulary. 

3. Some people are too foolish to commit folly. 

4. By indignities men come to dignities. 

5. Unfortunate lady, how sad is your lot ! 
Your ringlets are red, your poems are not. 

6. The favorite has no friends. 

7. Never less alone than when alone. 

8. It is a custom more honored in the breach than in 
the observance. 

9. Language is the art of concealing thought. 

10. A remedy worse than the disease. 

11. He was conspicuous by his absence. 

12. We can not see the woods for trees. 

13. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 

14. Hell is paved with good intentions. 

15. No pain, no pleasure. 

16. The first shall be last, and the last first. 

17. The half is greater than the whole. [Of very long 
sermons, for instance.] 

18. Beauty, when unadorned, adorned the most. 

19. When you have nothing to say, say it. 

20. The child is father to the man. 

21. The valiant taste death but once. 

22. He said so many things that he didn't say any- 
thing. 

23. When I am weak, then am I strong. — Paul. 

24. While we look not at the things which are seen, 
but at the things which are not seen. — Paul. 

Note the cluster of happy epigrams Paul employs in 
speaking of himself and colaborers in the gospel : — 



196 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

25. ''As deceivers, and yet true ; as unknown, and yet 
well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chas- 
tened, and not killed; as sorrowful, yet alway rejoicing; 
as poor, yet making many rich ; as having nothing, and 
yet possessing all things." 2 Cor. 6:8-10. 

Remember that epigrams need the emphasis of infre- 
quency. Where they abound they are seldom found. 

Before we can feel secure in using metaphors, we need 
to learn how to detect counterfeit metaphors. I quote 
from Dr. E. H. Lewis : — 

''A good figure of speech must be consistent. Although a 
lively imagination changes its metaphors from minute to minute, 
it must not change them so fast as to suggest ridiculous things. 
If the metaphor gets mixed, clearness and force go to the winds. 
The other day the writer heard a young man earnestly exclaim, 
'Now I shall have to toe the bee-line!' The thought of that 
youth, lifted to a perilous position where his toes sought vainly 
in the trackless air for a 'bee-line,' was quite too much for the 
gravity of his hearers. This trope that failed to be a trope was 
about as effective as the famous lightning-change series of meta- 
phors uttered by Sir Boyle Roche : 'Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat. 
I see him floating in the air. But I will nip him in the bud.' 
Mixed metaphor may arise from mere liveliness of imagination, — 
a good fault sometimes. More frequently it arises from vague 
thinking or from grandiloquence." 

"A figure that is not in good taste is incomparably 
worse than no figure at all." A metaphor is said to be 
mixed, or incongnwus, when made up of parts not con- 
sistent with each other ; as, ''He is szvamped in the meshes 
of his argument.'' Here the word swamp brings before 
the mind the pictures of a bog, but meshes that of a net- 
work. The parts of the metaphor are not of the same 
piece ; the figure is not homogeneous. It should be either, 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 1 97 

''He is szuamped in the mire of his argument/' or ''He is 
entangled in the meshes of his argument." Another mis- 
take is to blend metaphorical with plain language. What 
is begun in metaphor is pieced out with plain language, 
and viee versa; as, "The strong pillar of the church had 
fled." Here pillar is figurative, and fled is literal. The 
statement should be either literal or metaphorical 
throughout ; thus, "The most influential man of the 
church had fled/' or "The strong pillar of the church had 
fallen/' 

I shall help you to restore fotce to the following faulty 
figures, only so far as to italicize the parts that are incon- 
gruous or otherwise inappropriate : — 

1. His bosom was szvollen with the flames of pa- 
triotism. 

2. A varnish of morality makes his actions palatable. 

3. He kindles the slumbering fires of passion. 

4. Solve the mazes of this dark tragedy. 

5. They are brittle wits, the edge whereof is soon 
turned. 

6. Pilot US through the wilderness of life. 

7. There is not a single view of human nature that is 
not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride. 

8. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through 
the thickest gloom. 

9. A torrent of superstition consumed the land. 

10. The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to Brit- 
ish connection. 

11. Chaucer was the father of English poetry and a 
favorite of the king. 

12. No human happiness is so serene as not to contain 
some alloy. 



iqS the essentials of our language. 

13. Hawthorne did not care to shine as a star in the 
tipper crust of society. 

14. In the current of these mysterious and awful events 
we can not fail to see the footprints of an all-powerful 
hand. 

15. These young men do not realize that they are sow- 
ing the seeds of a drunkard's grave. 

16. This infamous business, as it is carried on to-day, 
must be wiped out, for every night its tentacles enter ten 
thousand homes and drown in scalding tears the smile 
on the face of innocent childhood. 

17. To trace the allusions contained in them, to tin- 
ravel the obscurities inwrapped in them, involves a degree 
of labor which few are willing to bestow. 

18. Fancy sports on airy wing, like a meteor on the 
bosom of a summer cloud. 

19. He is fairly launched on the road to preferment. 

20. He stooped to such lengths of meanness. 

21. The shot of the enemy mozved dozmi our ranks 
with frightful rapidity. On every hand men and horses 
lay in universal carnage, like scattered icrecks on a storm- 
beaten shore. 

22. I bridle in my struggling muse with pain. 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 

23. The germ, the Sawn of a new vein in literature 
lies there. 

24. The voice oi England, which sounded so clearly at 
the last general election, would be lost sight of. 

25. Throw open the flood-gates of democracy, and you 
pave the zmy for a general conflagration. 



THE Art of sentence building. 199 

26. Italy is a narrow tongue of land, the backbone of 
which is formed by the Apenines. 

If it is the office of a sentence to convey a thought, the 
first requisite of a good sentence is Clearness. Lucidity 
takes precedence of all other qualities of style. Force 
and beauty count for nothing if the sentence be not first 
clear, for clearness is the foundation upon which all 
other qualities of style are built. The opposite of clear- 
ness is known by the big word ambiguity. An ambig- 
uous sentence is one that is open to two or more interpre- 
tations. A vague sentence is one that is so lacking in 
precision as to convey no thought definitely. Ambiguity, 
or vagueness of style, is a fatal blemish, — a blemish that 
readers will not brook. 

The first requisite to clearness is clear, definite think- 
ing on the part of the writer or speaker. One can not 
make his thought clearer to others than it is to himself. 
Haziness of thought must issue in haziness of expression. 

The misplacing of any part or parts of a sentence 
nearly always results in ambiguity. Hence, one of the 
most important aids to clearness is careful arrangement. 
If one should write, "People ceased to wonder by de- 
grees," it would be difficult for the reader to determine 
whether by degrees is intended to qualify ceased or won- 
der. By transposing the phrase by degrees to the begin- 
ning of the sentence, the phrase unmistakably modifies 
ceased. Hence, all phrases and clauses must be so 
ordered in the sentence as to make their grammatical 
relation unmistakably evident. 

The dislocated parts of the following sentences are 
italicized. Give them their normal position in the sen- 
tence. Recast the sentence, if necessary. 



200 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

1. Milton's 'Taradise Lost'' is a poem about Satan 
divided into tzvelve parts. 

2. Various estimates have been made as to the time 
of the birth of Columbus from the fezv facts which we 
have aho^lt his early life. 

3. They made it very unpleasant for their victim 
while he was being searched for booty zvith their sar- 
casm. 

4. He spoke to the young men who had been intox- 
icated most earnestly. 

^. While playing hall one Sunday, a pious old man 
spoke to him. 

6. I learned what an inefficient teacher I was later in 
life. 

7. He said that his traveling bag had been stolen 
while sleeping in the car. 

8. Sometimes disturbances arise, but they are usually 
checked before much harm is done hy the policeman. 

9. The preacher spoke of the evils of gambling with- 
out manuscript or note. 

10. Riding quickly to the other end of the line, the 
command of the officer came sharp and clear. 

The italicized words in the following sentences should 
be removed to the position indicated by the star (*). 
Determine why. 

1. Having nearly caught (*) one hundred fish, they 
were much elated. 

2. She (*) reads the works of Kipling as they appear 
eagerly. 

3. He m^erely talks of society affairs {^). 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 20I 

4. He is neither inclined to favor {^) protection nor 
absolute free trade. 

5. She was neither qualified (*) by early training nor 
by later associations to govern a nation. 

6. He has a very small income, as he nearly lost {^) 
all his property. 

7. It is probably thought that he (*) will succeed. 

8. The grains mostly cultivated here are (''') rye and 
oats. 

9. Some people only succeed in {^) getting them- 
selves into trouble. 

10. Our army nearly took ('^) a thousand prisoners. 

11. The force of habit is even carried (*) into the 
sacred region of religion. 

12. The twins nearly look (^) .alike. 

13. I would {^) like to come very much. 

14. I only came {'^) to look on. 

15. I have ('^) thought over what you said the other 
night very carefully. 

16. {^) The first word of an example may also prop- 
erly begin with a capital. 

17. He both taught them ('^) to read and to write. 

18. He neither answered {^) my letter nor my card, 

19. He was not competent either to teach (''') classics 
or mathematics. 

20. Such a task would be alike barren of instruction 
and amusement (*). 

21. It will not merely interest the (*) children, but 
also the parents. 

22. You are not only mistaken in your {'^) inferences, 
but also in your facts. 



202 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

2^. I have only received ('•') one letter from her since 
she left. 

24. He only rents (*) the store, not the house. 

25. His dexterity almost appeared {^) miraculous. 

26. He must (^) have wanted to see them very much. 

27. I ('^) forgot to sign my name to a letter once. 

28. I fear that it will be necessary to entirely remodel 

it (*). 

29. I (*) beg to respectf^illy recommend its adoption. 

30. I scarcely ever remember ('^) hearing one that I 
liked better. 

31. {^) Everybody thought that it was destined to be 
a great city, tzuenty years ago. 

32. (*) He came very near being struck more than 
once during the row. 

33. ('^) They followed his ascent, step by step, through 
telescopes. 

Carelessness in the ttse of pronouns is a fruitful source 
of ambiguity. Every pronoun should be so placed as to 
enable the reader to see at a glance what antecedent the 
pronoun is meant to represent. Writers of considerable 
experience sometimes commit errors in dealing with pro- 
nouns. Here, if anywhere, vigilance is the price of uni- 
form correctness. 

The main devices for making the reference of the pro- 
noun clear are : The employment of the demonstratives 
this, that, these, those, the former, and the latter; repe- 
tition of antecedent ; and direct discourse. In the follow- 
ing sentence as it stands, the reference of the pronouns is 
wholly uncertain; by changing it to direct discourse all 
is made clear. 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 203 

"He told his friend that if he did not feel better in 
half an hour, he thought he would better return." It is 
impossible to determine whether the speaker or the one 
spoken to ''would better return." Change to ''He said 
to his friend, 'If I (or you) do not feel better in half an 
hour, I think I (or you) would better return.' " 

"He promised his father that he would pay his debts." 
Whose debts, his own or his father's, did he promise to 
pay? If he promised to pay his father's debts, the sen- 
tence should stand thus : "He promised his father that he 
would pay his father's debts." If he promised to pay 
his own, the sentence must be changed to direct dis- 
course, thus : "He made this promise to his father, 'I 
will pay my debts.' " 

Note the hopeless ambiguity that arises from the 
reckless use of pronouns, in the following: — 

"On his way, he visited a son of an old friend, zvho 
had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. 
He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his 
most intelligent workmen and told him to consider him- 
self at his service, as he himself could not take him as he 
wished about the city." 

By skilful repetition the ambiguity is cleared up ; thus : 

"On his way he visited an old friend's son, who had 
asked him to call, on his journey northward. The host 
was overjoyed to see him, and, sending for one of his 
most intelligent workmen, told him to consider himself 
at the stranger's service, as he himself could not take his 
guest as he could have wished about the city." 

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun should be 
given such a position in the sentence as will make its 



204 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

reference evident at once. In the sentence, ''I have let- 
ters from college students and others that are curiosities 
in their way/' the relative pronoun that has three possible 
antecedents, — letters, students, and others. All is made 
clear by giving the sentence the follow^ing cast : ''From 
college students and others, I have received letters that 
are curiosities in their way." 

The statement, ''The figs were in small wooden boxes 
which we ate,'' should be, "The figs which we ate were in 
small wooden boxes." The sentence, "He must endure 
the foibles of others, who would have their kindness," 
should be, "He who would have the kindness of others 
must endure their foibles." The sentence, "The day has 
come of great rejoicing to many hearts, which we have 
looked for so long," should be, "The long-looked-for day 
of rejoicing to many hearts has come at last." Observe 
how a repetition saves the following sentence from am- 
biguity : "The lad can not leave his father ; for if he should 
leave his father, his father would die." Gen. 44 : 22. 

The writer of "The intellectual qualities of the youth 
were superior to those of his raiment," meant to say, 
'The qualities of the youth's intellect were superior to 
those of his raiment." The sentence, "Mr. Jones has 
just received a letter from Mr. Smith, saying that he is 
expected to deliver the next annual address," should be, 
"Mr. Jones has just received a letter from Mr. Smith, 
saying that the former (or Mr, Jones) is expected to de- 
liver the next annual address." 

'My punishment did him good" might mean "The 
punishment I received did him good," or "The punish- 
ment I gave him did him good." 



THE ART OF SENTENCE BUILDING. 205 

Every one who writes for the pubHc is morally bound 
to make every sentence he writes as clear as it can be 
made. Clearness is, in its last analysis, truthfulness. 
Ambiguity is distortion, and distortion is essentially an 
untruth. 

Every good sentence is a well-knit sentence. Its parts 
all cohere. It contains but one central thought. It may 
be long, and may be made up of a variety of clauses and 
phrases ; but these clauses and phrases are strictly subor- 
dinated to the clause or clauses expressing the main 
thought. In short, a good sentence is symmetrical and 
firmly jointed. It exists for the sake of one thought,-r~ 
a thought that stands out ''with the high light upon it.'' 
The ideal sentence is an organism, from which everything 
that does not contribute to the completeness of the organ- 
ism, is excluded. Good sentences rarely contain paren- 
theses. They come to an easy, natural close. A sen- 
tence that meets these requirements is said to possess 
Unify. But unity is merely one of the conditions of 
clearness and force. 

A sentence which wants unity is either shambling and 
rickety in structure, or heterog'eneous in content. Pro- 
fessor Meiklejohn gives the following specimen of a 
loose- jointed sentence : 'T asked him to show rne his 
picture, which he did, and pointed out one in particular, 
a portrait of a young man, painted, he said, by Wilson." 

Note the irrelevancy of the several thoughts in this 
sentence : ''The admiral died in his ninety-first year, when 
the Thames was covered with ice eleven inches thick, 
during a severe winter when nearly all the birds per- 



206 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

ished/' What is here said regarding the condition of the 
Thames should be the subject of a distinct sentence. 

Remember, too, that a good sentence does not contain 
more than one meaning of the same word. Thus : ''This 
is my duty so long as I keep within the bounds of duty/' 
"He left this world, leaving handsome fortunes to his 
children.'' ''The letters of many men of letters are not 
distinguished above those of ordinary /<?^^^r-writers.'' 
"Feathers are heavier than nothing; and nothing is 
heavier than lead ; therefore, feathers are heavier than 
lead." 

If a sentence is neat, compact, and symmetrical, it is 
sure to be clear, strong, and attractive. 



PART VI. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 

WITH EXERCISES. 

In this chapter I shall discriminate not only many of 
the more practical English synonyms, but also those 
English words that are similar in sound and in deriva- 
tion, and therefore often confounded. 

The student should be required to use the words dis- 
criminated, in such a way as will exemplify the distinc- 
tions made. 

1. Answer, reply. An answer is given to a question; 
a reply is made to an objection, an accusation, or a 
charge. An answer simply informs, while a reply is in- 
tended to confute or disprove. Witnesses answer the 
questions put to them in court ; as, in such a case, it is in- 
formation alone that is sought. But the counsel for the 
defendant replies to the arguments used by the counsel 
for the plaintiff. It is better, as a rule, to talk of answer- 
ing a friend's letter than of replying to it. 

From a good dictionary study the words, response, 
rejoinder^ retort, repartee. 

2. Act, action. Both words contain the idea of doing; 
but action contains the additional notion of continuity. 
This is aptly brought out in the phrase ''an action at 
law.'' An act is a distinct, and a somewhat important, 

(207) 



208 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

doing. Action is applied to what is more general and 
continuous. We say "a kind act/' ''a brave act/' On 
the other hand, ''Mr. Roosevelt is a man of action/' 
''Life is action," Act is synonymous with deed ; action, 
with motion. 

3. Allow, permit. "To allow consents tacitly; to per- 
mit consents formally.'' An action for which permis- 
sion need not be asked is allowed ; to permit implies the 
granting of a request. ''Permit is positive ; it signifies to 
grant leave." 

"I have obtained his permission to make these conver- 
sations public." In America every one is allowed to fol- 
low the dictates of his own conscience. 

Carefully study concede, tolerate. 

4. Affect, effect. To act upon a thing in such a way 
as to modify it is to affect it; as, "Our mental states are 
affected by our sensible surroundings." To effect is to 
bring to pass; to execute; to accomplish; to achieve; as, 
"They sailed away withoiut effecting their purpose." 
Effect, as a noun, denotes the result of action ; as, "What 
was the effect of his fiery appeal ?" 

Study affect ( = to like), and the corresponding noun 
affectation. 

5. Amateur, novice. Amateur is frequently used in 
the sense of novice. One who practises an art, not as a 
profession nor as a means of livelihood, but solely for the 
love of it, is an amateur. A novice is a beginner in any 
pursuit — one yet in the rudiments. An amateur may be 
a master in his art; a novice lacks the experience essen- 
tial to skill. 

Study tyro, a synonym of novice. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 209 

6. Ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. Ancient is 
old, as opposed to modern. Homer and Plato were an- 
cient authors ; Babylon was an ancient city. What is 
antique is in the style of the ancients. An antique tem- 
ple may be modern, but is fashioned after an ancient 
model or style of architecture. We speak of an antique 
coin, or cup, or costume; and of ancient laws and cus- 
toms. That which by lapse of time has passed out of 
fashion or use, is antiquated. The reaping machines of 
fifty years ago have become antiquated. Obsolete ex- 
presses that of which the life or force has fallen into dis- 
use. It is applied to words, documents, customs, and 
observances, but never to persons, and rarely tO' material 
things. 

Study primal, primeval, primordial. 

7. Apprehend, comprehend. These words are improp- 
erly interchanged. To apprehend ^ truth is to have an 
inteHigent notion of it ; as, Man may apprehend the 
divine law, but can not comprehend it. To understand 
a truth or a principle in all its compass is to comprehend 
it. We apprehend the miysteries of religion, and walk by 
faith. If we comprehended them we would walk by the 
sole light of reason. There are many who apprehend, 
but can not comprehend, the nature of electricity. To 
apprehend is generally sufficient for practical purposes. 

Study prescience, omniscience. 

8. Apparent, obvious. These are not always synony- 
mous. That which is obvious is evident, certain, real. 
What is apparent may be just the reverse of real; as, 
''A paradox is an apparent contradiction of terms,'' "The 
Duke of York is the heir apparent to the English throne." 

Look up the etymology of obvious. 

14 



2IO THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

9. Acceptance, acceptation. Acceptance expresses the 
receiving of something; as, ''His acceptance of the gift 
was graceful/' Acceptation expresses the meaning with 
which a word or phrase is understood, or generally re- 
ceived; as, ''We must use the word in its usual accepta- 
tion/' 

In what sense does each of these words contain the 
idea to take? 

10. Acquire, obtain. What is acquired is gotten by 
one's own efforts ; what is obtained may be gotten by 
the efforts of others. What one acquires comes grad- 
ually to him in consequence of the regular exercise of 
his abilities. Hence, knowledge, honor, reputation are 
acquired. One obtains what he inherits. A fortune 
that is amassed as the result of many years of labor is 
acquired. "What is acquired is solid, and produces last- 
ing benefit; what is obtained may often be injurious to 
one's health, one's interest, or one's morals." 

Study attain. 

11. Abridge, abbreviate. To abridge is to shorten by 
condensing or compressing ; to abbreviate is to shorten by 
cutting off, or curtailing. Written words are abbreviated 
by clipping them ; voluminous treatises are abridged by 
reducing the same matter to smaller compass; o'er for 
over ; ne'er for never ; can't for can not, and so on, are 
not abbreviated forms of their originals, but contracted 
forms. 

Use curtail in an original sentence. 

12. Access, accession. We have access to a library, to 
a city directory, to a magistrate. The college faculty 
has received a valuable accession in the person of Pro- 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 211 

fessor B., just elected to the chair of mathematics. The 
Hbrary has received a large accession of books. The 
Sultan celebrated his accession to the throne. 

Study the etymology of these words. Study accede. 

13. At last, at length. What is done at last is brought 
about after many delays, difficulties, or accidents ; i. e,, 
it is accomplished in spite of these. 

What is done at length is brought about after a long 
continuance of time. The great Salt Lake temple was 
forty years in building; it was at length completed. 
After surmounting many apparently insuperable obsta- 
cles, the first transcontinental railway was at last fin- 
ished. What takes a long time to be done, is accoin- 
plished at length; what is done in the face of difficultit b 
is accomplished at last. 

14. Abettor, accomplice. An abettor is one who in any 
way promiotes the execution of an evil scheme without 
taking a direct part in it. An accomplice is the prime 
mover in an iniquitous scheme, the one who devises the 
plans for the execution of a crime. An abettor may 
merely connive at the commission of a crime; an accom- 
plice is the leading spirit in its commission. 

Study accessory, 

15. Active, agile, alert, lively. One who is given to 
action, or is fond of action, is active. ''An active demand 
for wheat" is a current phrase of the business world. 
One who is nimble or quick in movement is agile. One 
who is watchful and ready to act is alert. ''On the alert'' 
= on the lookout. One who is full of life, animated, is 
lively. We speak of "a lively child,'' "a lively faith," 
"a lively interest." 

Use in a sentence the noun form of agile. 



212 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

1 6. Accede, assent, acquiesce. We accede to anoth- 
er's wish, or practical proposal; we assent to the truth 
of a proposition, to the objective point of an argument. 
Acqtnesce is closely akin to assent, but is less positive 
and active. It means to concur less heartily than is im- 
plied in assent. It means hardly more than to forbear 
opposition. 

'^We can not assent to a proposition without some intelligent 
apprehension of it." — Newman. 

"Take the place and attitude that belong to you and all men 
acquiesce." — Emerson. 

''The proprietors acceded to the request of their employees." 

17. Bravery, courage, fortitude. Bravery is more a 
matter of temper, of instinct, than of reason or insight. 
Courage is the result of reflection and conscience. There 
is little merit in being brave; there is much in being 
courageous. Courage is always cool and collected, and 
moves in the light. Bravery is liable to degenerate into 
mere temerity. Fortitude is resolute endurance; bear- 
ing pain or adversity without complaining, depression, 
or despondency. ''It takes courage to storm a battery, 
fortitude to stand still under an enemy's fire.'' ''J^^us 
bore His awful sufferings with the utmost fortitude." 

Study valor J intrepidity. 

18. Bough, branch. A branch is one of the arms of a 
tree regarded simply in its ramifications ; a hough is a 
branch thought of as invested with leaves, or with leaves 
and blossoms, or with leaves and fruit. When we think 
of the arms of a tree as constituent parts of a tree, we 
properly speak of them as branches ; when we are think- 
ing of them as luxuriant with leaves, etc., w^e (^all them 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 213 

boughs. The bough is sometimes severed from the tree 
and used for festive decoration. The fruitful bough, 
rich with the foHage of summer and the fruit of autumn, 
becomes in winter a leafless branch. 

"Joseph is a fruitful bough/' — Gen. 49 122. 

19. Bring, fetch. Bring is only to convey to; as, 'The 
farmer brings potatoes to market.'' Fetch is to go and 
bring. One who brings passes over the ground in only 
one direction ; one who fetches passes over the ground in 
both directions ; i. e., makes a ''round trip,'' so to speak. 
The phrase "Go and bring" is the equivalent of fetch. 

20. Bestow, confer. Both these verbs express the idea 
of giving. Bestow is said of things given between per- 
sons in private life ; confer, of things given from persons 
in authority to those below them in rank. Princes con- 
fer honors, privileges, dignities. One neighbor bestows 
favors upon another. We bestow charity, kindness, 
favors, pains, etc. 

"The whole affair is so petty that I shall not bestow another 
thought upon the subject." 

"Henry VIII. conferred upon Wolsey the highest honors." 

Study accord and grant. 

21. Bleach, blanch, whiten. Of these whiten is the 
generic term. It is to make white either by internal 
changes or by the application of an external coloring. 
If a thing is made white by an alteration of its inherent 
and natural coloring matter, it is said tO' be blanched. 
Growing plants deprived of light become blanched. If 
the whitening is effected by the destruction of the color- 
ing matter of the body, either by the action of light 



214 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

and air or by the application of some acid, the object is 
said to be bleached. 

Discriminate pale, pallid, zvan. 

22. Barbarous, barbaric. Barharoiis refers to the 
cruehy, the inhumanity, the brutaHty, the grossness of 
unciviHzed peoples. Barbaric refers to the rude splendor, 
the crude taste, the uncultured display of wealth, peculiar 
to a barbarous people. We speak of barbarous practises, 
conduct, etc. ; but of barbaric splendor, wealth, pomp, 
and so on. 

Find the etymological source of barbarous. 

23. Contagion, infection. Both words imply the com- 
munication of something bad. The former operates by 
mutual contact ; the latter, by means other than contact. 
All diseases of the skin, as the measles, smallpox, etc., 
are contagious. Some fevers, diphtheria, etc., are infec-. 
tious. It is proper to say that usage warrants us in using 
contagious for infectious occasionally, for the sake of 
variety. Metaphorically we say, Bad manners are con- 
tagious, bad principles infectious. 

Look up the etymology of contagious. 
Study contiguous, tactile. 

24. Covetous, avaricious, parsimonious. An inordi- 
nate desire for wealth, by whatever means it may be 
acquired, is azarice; the illicit desire to appropriate the 
wealth of others is coi^etoiisness. ''The avaricious are 
eager to get, in order to heap up ; they can not bear to 
part with their wealth ; the covetous are eager to obtain 
money, but not so desirous to retain it.'' A covetous man 
may even be a spendthrift. The avaricious spend as 
little as possible. The parsimonious man is frugal to 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 21 5 

excess ; his closeness borders upon niggardliness. He 
is rigorously economical in little matters ; he systemat- 
ically curtails trivial expenises. It is by parsimony that 
the poor grow rich. Penuriousness is aggravated parsi- 
mony. 

25. Contemptible, despicable. The ideas expressed by 
these words differ in degree only. The latter is the more 
intensive. What is worthless or weak is contemptible ; 
what is actively bad or immoral is despicable. We look 
slightingly upon that which we contemn, as unworthy of 
serious attention. Affectation, pedantry, and^vanity are 
contemptible ; positive vice, malice, treachery, and the 
like are despicable. Because David was small of stature, 
his antagonist, Goliath, regarded him with contempt. 
Because of its want of numerical force, an army may 
seem contemptible to its enemy. 

Can you think of any words syno'nymous with these? 

26. Continual, continuous, perpetual. What is con- 
timtal recurs often ; what is continuous goes on without 
break or interruption. Perpetual means the same as con- 
tinuous with the additional idea of never stopping; as, 
'The planets revolve perpetually'' "The tides rise and 
ebb perpetually/' If it rained at intervals during the 
whole of yesterday, we say, 'Tt rained continually yester- 
day.'' If the downpour was unbroken, we say, ''It 
rained continuously yesterday.'' "Yet ... I will 
avenge her, lest by her continual coming she weary me." 
Luke 18:5. "Carlyle's 'Frederick the Great' is rather 
a bundle of lively episodes than a continuous narrative." 
— Lozvell. 

Discriminate eternal and everlasting. 



2l6 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

2y, Confute, refute. An argument is confuted when 
it is neutralized, reduced to an absurdity, or annihilated 
by a counter argument. What is proved to be untrue in 
the case — i, e., relatively untrue — is refuted. What is 
personally alleged against one, as charges, slanders, cal- 
umnies, etc., is refuted if proved to be false. Confuta- 
tion destroys, boils down to nothing, so to speak ; refuta- 
tion does not destroy or alter the charge, but simply " 
invalidates its application in the matter in hand. In 
short, opinions, paradoxes, and arguments are confuted; 
while assertions, charges, insinuations, calumnies, etc., 
are refuted. 

28. Ceremonial, ceremonious. These words were for- 
merly the same in meaning. Ceremonial now means 
pertaining to public ceremony, or forms of public wor- 
ship ; ritualistic. As a noun it means the system of rules 
and rites that characterize public worship ; as, "The cere- 
monial of the Anglican Church is more complex than 
that of any other Protestant church.'' Ceremonious 
refers to the forms of social demeanor, or etiquette. A 
ceremonious person is one who is over-exact, punctilious, 
in the forms of social behavior. "Too ceremonious in 
testifying their allegiance." — Raleigh. 

Study decorous, deferential, obsequious. 

29. Chasteness, chastity. Chasteness is freedom from 
mere gaudiness and affectation in oral or written speech, 
and freedom from what is meretricious in art. ''His dic- 
tion [Irving's] is distinguished for its harmony and 
chasteness.'' The more common word, chastity, signi- 
fies sexual purity ; moral cleanness ; continence. ''The 
most beautiful of all the virtues — chastity.'' 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 217 

30. Commence, begin. Commence is of classical deri- 
vation; begin is pure Saxon. Being the simpler and 
stronger, begin is decidedly preferable. For variety's 
sake, commence may be used occasionally in referring 
to actions subject to the human will; but in referring to 
actions or movements beyond the sphere of human voli- 
tion, we must invariably use begin ; as, ''Summer begins 
in June,'' "Next August will begin on a Thursday." 

31. Custom, habit. We speak of national customs ^ 
and of a man of indolent habits. What the majority 
does becomes .a custom ; what the individual does [gen- 
erally] becomes a habit. Indulgence in tobacco, wine, 
etc., are bad habits. To abstain from the use of flesh 
meats on certain days is a custom among Catholics. 
Customs may beget habits ; for instance, the custom of 
giving soldiers in the field a daily allowance of spirits 
is likely to result in the drinking habit on the part of the 
individual soldier. Custom implies volition and con- 
sciousness ; habit tends to become involuntary and auto- 
matic. 

Study practise (noun) and vogiie. 

32. Crime, sin, vice. Crime implies primarily an in- 
fraction of civil law ; sin of divine law. Vice is an 
ofifense against morality. Sin has reference to the rela- 
tion between God and man ; vice refers to the relation 
between man and man. An act is sinful because it is 
contrary to the law of God ; it is vicious because it is 
injurious to the individual subject and to society. A vicious 
act is necessarily a sinful act. With very few exceptions 
criminal acts are likewise sinful. When a civil statute 
is in comflict with the divine law, the true Christian 



2l8 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

must break the civil statute in order that he may not 
break the divine law and thus commit sin. He then 
commits a crime in the eyes of the civil authorities, 
but he commits no sin; in fact he committed the crime 
that he might not sin. A crime committed from any 
other motive is sin. The use of narcotics, morphine, 
alcoholics, as well as gambling and secret abuse, is a vice. 
Look up the etymology of transgression^ iniquity, 
ivickedness. 

33. Conquer, vanquish, subdue, overcome. Persons 
and things are conquered, subdued, or overcome; but 
persons only are vanquished. To conquer means distinc- 
tively to gain control or possession of. Prisoners of war 
are conquered but not necessarily subdued. A country 
may be conquered by sheer force but its people may not 
be subdued. To subdue a people is to check or destroy 
all tendency to, or desire for, further resistance. Spain 
often conquered colonists that she never succeeded in 
subduing. We speak of vanquishing a foe when we 
think of our compelling him to yield, tO' ''give in.'' Will- 
iam the Norman succeeded in conquering the English 
after he had vanquished their leader, Harold. It was 
twelve years after he had conquered the English before 
he succeeded in subduing them. How long it took the 
English to subdue the Boers after they had practically 
conquered them and vanquished a number of their lead- 
ers. The distinct idea of overcome is to get the mastery 
of. What we overcome we control instead of its con- 
trolling us. Evil tendencies of the heart and flesh may 
be overcome long before they are subdued. We get the 
mastery over them and hold them in subjection, while 
they still clamor for indulgence. Only death can subdue 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. ^19 

some of them. Lusts that have been starved out of ex- 
istence are not only overcome but subdued. 
Study qiiell, surmount. 

34. Disability, inability. Disability is lack of techni- 
cal, legal, or conventional power to act. A minor can 
not become a party to a contract because of a legal disa- 
bility under which he labors. Because of some personal 
relation which a judge sustains toward a matter to be 
adjudicated, he is legally disqualified to act in his official 
capacity during such adjudication. He is technically 
disabled. Inability implies a lack of capability; disa- 
bility does not imply such lack, but a lack of some formal 
qualification.. It is a disability, not an inability, that 
would bar Mr. Carl Schurz from the presidential office. 

35. Distinguish, discriminate. We distinguish with 
the eye, the sense of vision ; we discriminate with the 
judgment or understanding. We distinguish when we 
point out broad, obvious differences ; we discriminate 
when we draw or point out minute, nice, delicate differ- 
ences. We distinguish for practical purposes ; we dis- 
criminate not only for practical, but for speculative, pur- 
poses. We distinguish things ; we discriminate ideas 
and principles. Hence a mind that detects delicate 
shades of unlikeness is a ''discriminating mind." It 
would be difficult to discriminate between a discriminat- 
ing mind and a subtile mind. 

Study differentiate. 

36. Defend, protect. To defend is an active, to protect 
is a passive term. ''We defend those who are attacked ; 
we protect those who are liable to be attacked." Swords 
and muskets are arms of defense; helmets and shields 



2 20 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

are means of protectio'n*. Walls and fortifications are 
built for purposes of protection. A garrison fires upon 
the enemy in order to defend the town. 
Look up the etymology of these words. 

37. Discretion, prudence. By prudence we foresee 
probabilities, and act accordingly. Prudence reads the 
future; discretion judges the present. The discreet man 
uses most wisely the tangible realities with which he has 
to do nozv; the prudent man prepares for what is coming. 
To act with decorum on all occasions evinces discretion ; 
to successfully meet probable contingencies evinces pru- 
dence. A discreet person does what is most fitting, most 
seemly. A prudent man is never taken ofif guard — never 
found napping. ''A prudent man foreseeth the evil, and 
hideth himself." Prov. 27:12. ''A good man show^eth 
favor, and lendeth : he will guide his afifairs with discre- 
tion/' Ps. 112: 5. 

Give several Bible examples of the use of discreet. 

38. Deadly, deathly, mortal. Deadly is applied to that 
which produces death ; deathly, to what resembles death ; 
mortal, to what terminates in, or is subject to, death. 
There may be remedies to counteract what is deadly. 
What is mortal can not be cured. We say, ''a deadly 
poison," ''a mortal wound," ''A deathly pallor came over 
the patient's face." I may add that what is fatal results 
irretrievably in death ; as, a fatal mistake, a fatal step, 
a fatal fall. 

Study the terms fatalism and fatalist. 

39. Decided, decisive. Webster discriminates these 
words thus : ''We call a thing decisive when it has the 
power of deciding; as, a decisive battle; we speak of it 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 221 

as decided when it is so fully settled as to leave no room 
for doubt; as, a decided preference, a decided aversion. 
Hence a decided victory is one about which there is no 
question ; a decisive victory is one which ends the con- 
test. Decisive is applied only to things; as, a decisive 
sentence, a decisive decree, a decisive judgment. De- 
cided is applied equally to persons and things." 

40. Definite, definitive. Definitive is not applicable, as 
definite is, to material objects. A material form or phe- 
nomenon is definite when it presents itself to the eye in 
sharp outlines of separation from other objects. A 
definite idea is one so clearly defined, so sharply out- 
lined, that it can not be mistaken for, or confounded with, 
any other idea. Definitive regards what is final, ulti- 
mate, decisive ; as, ''The decision handed down by the 
court yesterday is definitive f that is, there can be no 
appeal from it : it is final, unconditional. I can not speak 
definitely on a matter when my knowledge of it is not 
clear and exact. I can not speak definitely upon it 
when I can not say what will be conclusive and final upon 
it. An official ultimatum should be definite, and, of 
course, would not be an ultimatum if it were not defini- 
tive. A definite scheme is sO' clear and sharply marked 
out that it is easily understood ; a definitive scheme is 
one whose conditions are not subject tO' recall or modifi- 
cation. The Christian accepts as definitive what God 
says upon a subject. 

Study the etymotogy of these words. 

41. Disbelief, unbelief. The mere absence of belief is 
unbelief ; an unwillingness or refusal to believe is dis- 
belief. I express my unbelief in what I am willing to 



222 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

believe as soon as I am convinced that it is true. I 
express my disbelief in what I am persuaded is false. I 
disbelieve the statement of a perjured man. ''Unbelief 
is open to conviction ; disbelief is already convinced of 
the falseness of what it does not believe.'' Christians 
disbelieve the claims of Mohammed. 

Discriminate the terms atheism and skepticism. 

42. Deceit, deception. The individual instances or acts 
of one who deceives are deceptions. Hence we speak 
of an ''act of deception." Deceit is used more in refer- 
ence to the conscious habit of deceiving, or the disposi- 
tion to deceive. We say of one so disposed that he is 
deceitful. Deception is used more in respect of the one 
deceived; deceit with regard to the deceiver. Deception 
is therefore applicable to cases in which the guilt of 
deceit has no part; as, an optical deception. Deceit 
always implies intention. 

Use deceitful and deceptive in such a way as will illus- 
trate their difference. 

43. Deity, divinity. Deity regards God as an agent 
or person ; divinity signifies the essence or nature of God. 
Divinity is an attribute of Deity, or of God. When we 
speak of the divinity of Christ, we have regard to His 
nature, meaning that He was of the essence of God. 
Hence we speak of the attributes of the Deity, not of the 
divinity. 

How does deism differ from theism ? 

44. Discern, perceive. To perceive is that simple act 
of the eye by which a more or less distant object is 
brought to make an impression on the mind ; to discern 
expresses that act of the eye by virtue of whi^^h one is 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 223 

enabled to single out a particular object from among 
many others and consider it apart from the rest. We 
perceive trees or houses or persons at a distance; we 
discern an apple tree among many other sorts of fruit 
trees. 'Terceiving has reference to objects of the same 
sort; discerning, to one among many of a different sort 
from itself. The same distinction holds good in the ab- 
stract sense of the two words.'' After some reflection, 
we are able to see the truth of a proposition. A discrimi- 
nating mind can discern truth though it be mixed with 
error. It requires a discerning mind to select the wheat 
from the chaff of discourse^ — to pounce upon what is 
vital. 

^'The word of God is quick, and powerful, . . . 
and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the 
heart.'' Heb. 4:12. 

Study descry. 

45. Defective, faulty. What is lacking in some re- 
spect is defective; what has something that it should not 
have is faulty. A defect must be supplied ; a fault must 
be corrected. The absence of something right is a 
defect ; the presence of something wrong is a fault. 
What is imperfectly done is defective ; what is bunglingly 
done is faulty. A blemish may be neither a defect nor 
a fault, but merely an accidental mark that renders the 
object less sightly than it would otherwise be. It is 
always on the surface. It spoils the appearance — the 
looks — of that on which it is found. A flaw is some- 
thing unsound in what is otherwise genuine. A flaw 
detracts from the value — or at least from the commercial 
value— of a thing. A blind eye in a horse is prirnarily 
a flaw ; it makes the horse less salable. In so far as it 



224 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

impairs the ''looks" of the horse, it is a blemish. In so 
far as it impairs his normal vision, it is a defect. Meta- 
phorically we speak of a flaw in a document; so of ''a 
flaw in an indictment." 

Does the etymology of defectiue suggest its distinctive 
meaning ? 

46. Difficulty, obstacle. A difficulty perplexes, an oh- 
stack deters or retards us. Difficulties commonly arise 
out of the inherent nature and character of the matter 
in hand ; obstacles arise from extraneous causes. When 
leaving Egypt, the Hebrews regarded the Red Sea as an 
insuperable obstacle. The scarcity of water in the desert 
through which they marched was one of the many diffi- 
culties they met. Obstacles are either removed or sur- 
mounted ; difficulties are met and solved, or disposed of 
by skill, patience, and perseverance. 

Study the etymology of obstacle; the etymology of im- 
pediment, 

47. Effect, accomplish, achieve. To effect is to carry 
out a design, scheme, or project; to accomplish is to 
complete, to bring to natural close. ''He works hard 
but accomplishes nothing.'' Achieve implies a break- 
ing through difficulties. 

''What He [God] decreed He effected.''— Milton. 

The successful man accomplishes whatever he under- 
takes. 

It took years for the colonists to achieve their inde- 
pendence. 

Study compass (as a verb) ; embody it in a sentence. 

48. Efficient, effective. Effective has regard to what 
has power to produce a given eflfect ; efficient has regard 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 225 

to what actually does produce a given effect. We judge 
of what is effective from its appearance; we judge of 
what is efficient from what it does. An efficient body 
of poHce is one that has proved its abiUty to prevent 
crime and protect property; an effective poHce force is 
one that, judging from its numbers and other external 
circumstances, has the power to produce the same effect. 
An army just organized might be thought effective, but 
prove inefficient when brought into action. 

Observe further: That is efficacious which possesses 
the properties necessary to produce a certain effect; that 
is effectual which has already produced a given effect. 
An efficacious medicine is one that is known to possess the 
power to effect a cure; an effectual medicine is one known 
to have produced a cure. The master's rod, though not 
used, may prove efficacious in preserving order and quiet 
in the schoolroom. It may have been proved effectual by 
actual use. 

'The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man 
availeth much." James 5:16. 

49. Enough, sufficient. We have enough when our 
desires are satisfied; we have sufficient when our needs 
are met. Some persons, though they have more than 
sufficient, never have enough. A man may have enough 
money for himself and his family, and not sufficient to 
help his indigent neighbor. There are youth who get 
enough knowledge and training long before they have 
sufficient. 

In what respect does ample differ from these words? 

50. Enormity, enormousness. Enormousness qualifies 
a material object as being immense in magnitude; as, the 



15 



226 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

enornwusness of our national wealth, the enormovisness 
of our railway mileage. Enormity qualifies wrong-doing 
as being heinous, atrocious, monstrous ; as, the enormity 
of the crimes committed in the name of religion; the 
enormity of the outrages committed by the victorious 
soldiers. 

Does the etymology of these words furnish a clue to 
their present meaning? 

51. Evidence, testimony. Evidence is that which act- 
ually proves something; testimony is that which is in- 
tended to prove something. The evidence is only that 
part of the testimony which avails for the purpose in 
hand. There may be much testimony with but little evi- 
dence. 

How does testimonial differ from testimony? 

52. Entire, complete. Whatever lacks nothing that it 
was intended to have, is entire ; whatever lacks nothing 
it normally can have, is complete. An entire work on 
Roman history consists of a certain number of volumes ; 
a complete history of Rome is an absolutely exhaustive 
history of Rome. ''A complete work contains every- 
thing that can be said on the subject of which it treats.'' 
A history without maps is not complete ; but if no leaves 
are missing it is entire. A complete victory lacks in no 
element of thoroughness. What is entire is an unbroken 
integer. 

53. Egoism, egotism. Egotism is the acting out of 
self-conceit or self-importance, in words or conduct ; 
speaking or writing overmuch of one's self ; self-praise ; 
self -exaltation. Egoism is the disposition to concentrate 
one's thoughts and feelings upon one's self; ''the habit 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 227 

Oif regarding one's self as the center of every interest.'' 
Egoism is opposed to altruism. It is celf-centered, and 
lacks outward exhibition ; egotism always parades its own 
importance and doings. 

Look up the psychological import of egoism. Study 
altruism. 

54. Emigrant, immigrant. Emigrants are those who 
leave a country to find homes in another ; immigrants 
are those who come into a country with a view to settling 
there. 

Study these words etymologically. Use in a sentence 
the word migratory. 

55. Equivocal, ambiguous. A sentence that contains 
one general meaning, and yet contains a word or words 
which may be taken in two different senses , or phrases 
or clauses which may be regarded as qualifying either 
one of two or more terms of the sentence, is called an 
amhignous sentence. A part of the meaning intended 
is doubtful, uncertain. A sentence is . equivocal when, 
taken as a whole, it expresses each of two thoughts with 
equal propriety and clearness. What is ambiguous is a 
mere blunder of language ; what is equivocal is generally 
intended to deceive, though it may sometimes result from 
mere inadvertence. The idea of misleading or deceiving 
is always implied by the verb equivocate. 

Study evade and prevaricate. 

56. Excite, incite. To excite is to arouse feelings that 
were dormant or calm; to incite is to urge forward into 
acts corresponding to the feelings that have been awak- 
ened. 



228 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

In the study of what science or sciences would you 
expect to meet the long word excitation f 

57. Ethnography, ethnology. Ethnography seeks 
merely to describe and classify the races of mankind. 
Ethnology, the science of races, explains the mental and 
physical differences of the several races; explains the 
organic laws that give rise to these differences, and 
attempts to deduce from such laws rules for the guid- 
ance of the affairs of social and national existence. 

The two sciences correspond, in a sense, to the science 
of geography and of geology respectively. 

Note the etymological difference of the two words. 

58. Enemy, foe. An enemy is one who, actuated by 
unfriendly feelings, attempts or at least desires the injury 
of another. An enemy is open or secret, personal or col- 
lective. The term is sometimes employed impersonally; 
as, an enemy to truth, an enemy to progress, and so on. 
A foe is one whose hatred is more specific and aggres- 
sive than that of an enemy. A foe is always personal. 

Study adzrersary, antagonist, opponent. 

59. Equable, equitable. These words are not synony- 
mous with each other. They are sometimes confounded 
because of their resemblance in form. Equable ex- 
presses the idea of evenness or uniformity of motion, 
intensity, temperature, temper, and the like. The tem- 
perature of California is throughout the year more equa- 
ble than is that of the other states. The motion of the 
planets is absolutely equable. Longfellow's equable tem- 
per helped to win him friends. What is equitable is fair, 
just, impartial; as, an equitable decision, an equitable 
distribution of property. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 229 

Use in a sentence the noun corresponding to equitable. 

60. Exceptional, exceptionable. There is danger of 
confounding these words so unHke in meaning. What 
is exceptional is unusual or uncommon ; as, Tom is 
making exceptional progress in his studies. He ranks 
exceptionally high in his classes. What is exception- 
able is objectionable or questionable; liable to exception. 
''His conduct was exceptionable' means that he behaved 
in a manner objectionable. 

61. Eternal, everlasting. Everlasting now means 
without end ; eternal, without beginning or end. They 
are not, as formerly, interchangeable. The past eternity 
of God would not now be designated by the word ever- 
lasting. God has eternal life. Man may have, through 
Christ, everlasting life. Every nozif is a transition be- 
tween two eternities. 

62. Exuberant, luxuriant. Luxuriant signifies a flour- 
ishing, unrestrained growth ; while exuberant denotes a 
copious or even an excessive production. Luxuriant is 
always employed in a favorable sense. Exuberant some- 
times denotes that kind of abundance which needs to be 
pruned down or restrained. A luxuriant imagination 
is an invaluable gift to the poet, but an exuberant imagi- 
nation might run away with his reason. Exuberant joy 
or exuberant grief needs to be restrained. In this sense 
luxuriant is inadmissible. 

63. Falseness, falsity. Falsity is inapplicable to per- 
sons ; it has relation only to statements, propositions, and 
arguments. We speak of the falsity of a proposition, 
of a syllogism, of a doctrine, and so on. Falseness, on 
the contrary, is used only in respect of personal character ; 



230 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

as, the falseness of B/s character, or the falseness of 
C.'s heart. 

What is a fallacy? 

64. Faith, belief, trust. It has been said that belief 
exists ; faith acts. Belief is a passive faith, and faith is 
an active belief. Not belief, but faith, will ''remove 
mountains." Belief is merely intellectual assent to a doc- 
trine, or to a proposition, or to the existence of Deity ; it 
is a precondition to faith. Belief is confined to the under- 
standing; faith goes farther and moves the will. 'Taith 
which works" is the only genuine faith. 'The devils 
believe and tremble," says the apostle James. "The true 
test of its [faith's] merit and virtue is, not assenting to 
anything against our reason, but against our prejudices 
or interests^' One who holds to a doctrine in theory 
only has belief in the doctrine, but one who goes further 
and holds to it in practise as well, has faith in that doc- 
trine. Trust is that aspect of faith which has to do pri- 
marily with the feelings or the affections. The distinct- 
ive import of trust is a feeling of safety, of security ; a 
sense that "God is my refuge, in Him will I trust." It 
is the sweet, rest-giving element of faith. Trust con- 
fides in, and rests on, the promises of God. Trust is 
always calm, serene, composed. Trust simply can not 
worry and fret. Trust is "quietness and assurance for- 
ever." Faith is virtually the vital union of belief and 
trust. This union (faith) asserts itself in aggressive 
doing. Belief that ignores reason is mere credulity. 

Study the etymology of faith, infidel, perfidy. 

65. Feign, pretend. Both these words signify to mis- 
lead; to convey a false impression. Feigning commonly 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 23 1 

misleads the senses — tlie eye especially ; pretense misleads 
the understanding. We feign by false appearances, by 
outward demeanor and conduct. We feign orAy what 
pertains to ourselves. The object of feigning is to avoid 
the performance of a disagreeable duty or to gain an 
unearned good. Thus we may feign sickness, or friend- 
ship, or indifference, or ignorance (specific), etc. 
"'Ulysses feigned madness in order to escape going to the 
Trojan war.'' We pretend, not by conduct or manner, 
but by what we say. We seek to deceive the judgment 
by false assertions, by a misrepresentation of facts. We 
may pretend in matters pertaining to others as well as 
in those pertaining to ourselves. Thus I may pretend 
' to have been presented to the Pope or to a king, or to 
have completed a university course, or to be intimately 
acquainted with some famous man, and thus like. The 
meaning of dissemble is interesting, inasmuch as it is 
always the feigned concealment of what really exists in 
one's character or feeling. If one is jealous and pretends 
not to be, he dissembles. One feigns to be what he is 
not ; he dissembles in order to appear not to be what 
he is. 

What is the noun corresponding to dissemble? Study 
the word simulation. 

66. Foreigner, alien. A foreigner is a native of an- 
other country ; an alien is a foreigner who has hot been 
naturalized, or has not the privileges of a citizen of the 
country in which he resides. We have thousands of 
foreign citizens who are not aliens, and a few residents 
who are aliens and therefore not citizens. 

Study expatriate. 



232 THE EiSSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

67. Foretell, predict. We foretell by calculation, or 
on the ground of experience and knowledge. Hence we 
foretell with some degree of certainty. Our predictions 
are based mostly on conjecture. Eclipses are foretold 
by astronomers; evil or good fortune is predicted by 
astrologers and gypsies. Predict is employed only of 
persons, while foretell is used also of impersonal indica- 
tors; as, The mercury (barometer) foretells rain. 

Study prognosticate, divine (verb). 

68. Forefathers, ancestors. Our forefathers includes 
our parents ; our ancestors excludes them. It is said that 
ancestors is used in a sense to imply some dignity of 
birth. We are the children of our forefathers ; the pos- 
terity of our ancestors. 

69. Genius, talent. Genius denotes the highest ordei 
of human mentality. It is essentially original and inde- 
pendent in its operations. It is a strong inborn bent to 
some occupation in which the creative faculty, or the 
imagination in its highest manifestations, is largely em- 
ployed. Genius originates, creates, and makes new com- 
binations. Talent imitates faithfully; copies correctly; 
evolves, applies, and executes skilfully. By virtue of its 
inherent force, genius is measurably independent of rules, 
i. e., of their specific recognition. It recognizes and 
applies them intuitively, as it were. Talent is special 
capacity for learning rules, and power to employ them 
wisely. Not only the foremost poets, painters, compos- 
ers, etc., but also the greatest warriors, diplomats, and 
inventors, are called geniuses. Historians, mathema- 
ticians, linguists, statesmen, scientists, etc., are usually 
persons of talent. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 233 

''Genius of the highest kind impHes an unusual inten- 
sity of the modifying power/' — Coleridge. 

/'WilHam Pitt was distinguished for his unrivaled tal- 
ent for debate/' — Webster. 

70. Grecian, Greek. ''Greek signifies belonging to 
Greece; and Grecian, relating to Greece/' Homer was 
a Greek poet ; Herodotus was a Greek historian. We 
study the Greek language. Architecture modeled after 
that of Greece, is Grecian. A temple in Greece is a 
Greek temple ; one built upon the model of a Greek tem- 
ple is a Grecian temple. What has come down co us 
from ancient Greece is Greek ; what is made in imitation 
of the Greek is Grecian. 

71. Gain, win. Winning is a particular kind of gain- 
ing. By attention to business we may gain a fortune; 
by chance, luck, or artifice we may win a fortune. Win 
generally implies competition ; gain does not, as a rule. 
By our industry, faithfulness, and helpfulness we gain 
friends. We sometimes win friends without effort. 

In what sense is a victory zuonf in what sense gained? 
in what sense achieved? 

Use acquire in a sense in which the foregoing words 
would not be so apt. 

y2. Haste, hurry. Haste signifies speed of action. 
Hurry is haste with the added idea of confusion. Haste 
is an eager desire to accomplish quickly; hurry is the 
same desire accompanied with the fear of interruption. 
It is reasonable to be in haste, but never to be in a hurry. 
Napoleon' said, ''A man. should never seem to be in a 
hurry/' 



234 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

The distinctive meaning of hurry is indicated by its 
derivation. Look it up. 

73. Healthy, healthful. Though these terms are gen- 
erally used interchangeably, their distinction should not 
be lost sight of. The former denotes a condition ; the 
latter, a tendency. What is healthy is in good health; 
what is healthful tends to promote health. Healthful 
food makes healthy men. Wholesome is a good syno- 
niym with healthful. 

Embody in a sentence the adjective sahibrious. 

74. Heavenly, celestial. Both words literally mean 
relating to heaven. The former is of Anglo-Saxon deri- 
vation, the latter of Latin. Hence celestial qualifies the 
supposed abode of heathen deities. To the Greek mind 
Olympus was the celestial abode of Jupiter. We speak 
of the celestial worlds in contrast to the terrestrial one 
on which we live. Heavenly is more properly employed 
to designate what pertains to the real heaven, the abode 
of the Creator. We speak of heavenly joys, heavenly 
bliss, heavenly music, and thus like. We are thinking 
of music, bliss, and so on, as being vastly more exalted 
and sublime than that of man, when we say '^heavenly 
music," ''heavenly bliss,'' etc. We are thinking of merely 
their place, when we say ''celestial music," "celestial 
bliss," etc. Celestial has acquired more of a poetical turn 
than heavenly. 

Contrast the words supernal and infernal. 

75. Idle, indolent. An idle boy is not an altogether 
inactive boy, but one who occupies his time uselessly, or 
with frivolities. An indolent boy is strongly averse to 
efifort of any kind. The idle boy plays when he should 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 235 

work or apply himself to study. The indolent boy 
lounges about or sleeps when he should work or study. 
Tne idle boy lacks steadiness or purpose ; the indolent 
lacks the disposition to exertion. Idleness is further 
used in the sense of forced inactivity; as, Men unable to 
get employme,nt are idle. ''Why stand ye here all the 
day idlef . They say unto him, Because no man hath 
hired us.'' Matt. 20:6, 7. Idle originally meant un- 
profitable; as, ''idle fields,'' that is, fields not under cul- 
tivation. Lazy usually expresses a slothful habit of 
body, to which physical effort is hateful. It is a stronger 
and more disparaging term than indolent. 
Study lethargy, apathy, lassitude. 

76. Impossible, impracticable. What is contrary to the 
laws of nature or to common sense is impossible. What 
merely baffles human skill or ingenuity is impracticahle. 
It is impossible for a man, unaided by art, to fiy ; or 
to be in two places at the same time ; or to grow figs on 
thistles. There is nothing impossible with God, as He is 
the Author of nature. The design of cutting a canal 
across the Isthmus of Panama is still regarded by many 
as impracticable. Yet there is a possibility of its being 
done sometime. The achievements of modern inventive 
science have rendered practicable many things that were 
before impracticable. Communication between Europe 
and America by wireless telegraphy is not yet practicable, 
but may become so. 

"A thing is impracticable when it can not be accom- 
plished by any human means at present possessed ; a 
thing is impossible when the laws of nature forbid it." — 
Webster. 

Study feasible. 



236 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

jy. Ingenious, ingenuous. These are not synonyms, 
but easily confounded by the inexperienced. The former 
signifies shrewd, clever, original; the latter, frank, open, 
candid, sincere. ''He was a handsome youth, with an 
ingenuous face, and most engaging laugh.'' — Dickens, 

Study the etymology of frank and candid. 

78. Incompatible, inconsistent, incongruous. Things 
so disagreeing that they can not harmoniously exist 
together are incompatible. They are mutually exclusive ; 
as, incompatible tempers, incompatible desires, or ambi- 
tions. Things that are not suited to each other, or do 
not harmonize, are incongruous. What is incongruous 
offends the taste. To wear at the same time an immacu- 
late silk hat and cowhide boots would give the wearer 
an incongruous appearance. A combination of colors 
incongruous to us might not be so to oriental peoples. 
Conduct that is not in keeping, or in accord, with one's 
vows, profession, or the rules of his calling, is inconsist- 
ent. The following is from Webster: "Habitual levity 
of mind is incongruous with the profession of a clergy- 
man ; it is inconsistent with his ordination vows ; it is 
incompatible with his permanent usefulness." The spirit 
of the worldling and the spirit of the saint can not dwell 
together in the same person, as they are not compatible. 
To profess one thing and practise the opposite is to be 
inconsistent. For one of the justices of the United 
States Supreme Court to represent a character in the act- 
ing of a rollicking farce would be incongruous. 

Study incoherent. 

79. Intrude, obtrude. To go where one is not desired, 
or has not been invited to go, or has no right to go, is 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 237 

to intrude. To thrust one's self impertinently upon a 
company, or upon the attention) of another, is to obtrude 
one's self. One who obtrudes is usually irrepressible 
in his remarks ; one who intrudes may appear shy and 
taciturn. Obtrude is also used in an impersonal sense ; 
as. Objects obtrude themselves upon our senses, whether 
we will or not. 

The derivation of obtrude helps us understand its 
meaning. 

80. Incredible, incredulous. These words are not 
synonyms. Consult the dictionary. 

81. Illusion, delusion. What misleads the senses is an 
illusion; what misleads the understanding is a delusion. 
A false interpretation of an actual sense or impression 
is an illusion. A false belief, a false opinion, a false 
hope, are delusions. What seems to be a sense percept, 
but has no objective cause whatever, is an hallucination. 

Study phantom, specter. 

82. Inquiring, inquisitive. An inquiring mind is 
indispensable to successful research. An inquisitive 
temper is not an unmixed blessing. Inquisitive is of 
the same derivation as inquiring, but it has from usage 
an element of intrusiveness or prying. 

Study Webster's third definition of curiovis. (Inter- 
national Dictionary.) 

83. Liberty, freedom. Often used interchangeably, 
these words are distinct in some of their applications. 
Liberty implies a reference to former restraint or bond- 
age ; freedom signifies the simple unrepressed exercise of 
our powers. Liberty carries with it the idea of being 
no longer captive; freedom, that of nothing obstructinig 



238 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

the natural exercise of our powers. The slave, set at 
liberty, enjoys that freedom which his master has always 
enjoyed. Freedom sometimes means in an unrestrained 
manner; as, 'They played, worked, and studied with 
freedom,'' Here liberty would not be admissible. ''The 
liberty of the press is our great security for freedom of 
thought.'--/^e&^^^r. 

84. Lie, untruth. What is positively false is a lie; 
what is negatively false is an untruth. "The former is 
intentional, the latter involuntary." To assert what one 
knows to be untrue, with an intention to deceive, is to 
tell a lie. One who is not aware of the falsity of what 
he asserts, tells an untruth. Untruth when used in the 
sense of lie is a euphemism. 

85. Little, small. Little means not much; small means 
not large. Little when made to serve for small is a col- 
loquialism. We should say a small boy, insect, flower, 
and the like. It has rained but little this summer. 

Compare little. 

86. Malevolence, malice, malignity. These words dif- 
fer in degree. Malevolence expresses the idea of merely 
zvishing ill to others ; malice not only w^ishes ill, but is 
bent on doing ill, to another ; malignity is intense and 
deep-seated malice. Malignity is not only bent on doing 
evil, but delights in it, loves it for its own sake. A ma- 
lignant person is necessarily malevolent and malicious ; 
but one may be malicious without being malignant. Ma- 
lignant frequently qualifies an impersonal noun ; as, a 
malignant fever, a malignant cancer, malignant diph- 
theria, malignant fear. 

Contrast words malign and benign. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 239 

87. Mercenary, venal. One who is governed by a sor- 
did love of gain is mercenary. Mercenary soldiers are 
soldiers who serve only from motives of gain; as, the 
Hessians who enlisted in the British army during the 
Revolutionary War. We speak also of mercenary mo- 
tives, mercenary marriage ; in short, of mercenary service 
of any kind. ''Venal goes further, and supposes either 
an actual purchase, or a readiness to be purchased, which 
places a person or thing wholly in the power of the pur- 
chaser; as, a venal ^r^ss^ All who stand ready to be 
bribed, whether a judge, a legislator, or a voter, etc., are 
venal. 

Study venial, which is not synonymous with venal, but 
resembles it in form. 

88. Marine, maritime, naval, nautical. The first two 
words both mean belonging to the sea, but under differ- 
ent aspects ; marine, to the sea in its natural aspect or 
state ; as, marine deposits, marine plants, animals, etc. ; 
maritime, to the sea as related to man, or as employed 
by man ; as, a maritime people, or nation, maritime trade, 
maritime occupations. Naval expresses the idea of be- 
longing to ships ; as, a naval life, naval armament, the 
naval profession. That which pertains to the art of navi- 
gation is designated as nantical; as, nautical almanac, 
nautical instrument, nautical skill. 

Study naval and marine as to their derivation. 

89. Motherly, maternal. This pair of words is formed 
from corresponding roots in Saxon and Latin; the Latin 
word maternal being the more polite and cold, the Saxon 
motherly the more hearty and cordial. The Latin word 
is used tO' express the office, the Saxon the manner and 



240 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

deportment. We speak of maternal duties, office, sphere, 
authority, and the hke; of motherly care, tenderness, 
etc. A similar distinction hoilds between paternal and 
fatherly, fraternal and brotherly. 

What is meant by the ''medical fraternity" ? the ''legal 
fraternity" ? 

90. Noted, notorious. A noted man is well and widely 
known ; distinguished, celebrated ; as, a noted orator. 
Noted is always used in a favorable sense. A notorious 
person is one "generally known and talked of by the 
public" — generally in an unfavorable sense. We speak 
of a notorious thief, villain, bandit, brawler, and the like. 
Whatsis universally known or believed to be true may 
be described as notorious; as, "That this is an age of 
rank commercialism is notoriously patent." 

91. New, novel. Nezv is opposed to what is old ; novel, 
to what is known. New presupposes something pre- 
vious* novel implies something strange and unexpected. 
There may be a new edition of Prescott's histories. A 
novel method of doing something is a method that has 
not hitherto been tried. A new book may exhibit an 
old subject in a novel manner. Novel is a species of 
new; it combines what is new with what is strange or 
unusual. 

Study vinique and innovation. 

92. Opposite, contrary. Things that are contrary 
exclude each the other ; things that are opposite complete 
each the other. Opposite things, points, or ideas can 
never come in conflict with each other, as they are mathe- 
matically fixed. Things contrary often come into col- 
lision. Virtue is contrary to vice, since it is unlike vice 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 24 1 

in character, manifestation, motive, and practical effects. 
Virtue is opposite to vice, since, as a notion or concept, 
it stands over against vice, as the north pole stands over 
against the south pole. A thing or idea always implies 
its opposite. A thing or idea does not imply its con- 
trary. ''Opposite is static in its character ; contrary is 
dynamic.'' Contraries quarrel when they meet; oppo- 
sites are mathematically barred from meeting, and hence 
are eternally at peace. 

Study the derivation of opposite. 

93. Obligation, duty. Duty is what is natvirally due 
from one to another. No man can be exempt from 
duties. An obligation arises from circumstances. It is 
a species of duty. If I orally or in writing guarantee 
the payment of a sum of money, I contract an obligation. 
''An obligation is what we bind ourselves to do independ- 
ently of our natural duties.'' What are due, each to the 
other, of husband and wife, are duties because naturally 
implied in the marriage state. 

Study obligatory, duteous, dutiful. 

94. Observance, observation. One meaning of the 
verb observe is to keep or obey strictly ; the other mean- 
ing is to consider or notice with care. Hence observance, 
corresponding to the first meaning, signifies the keeping 
or obeying of a rule or law, and thus fulfilling a civil, 
moral, or religious duty. We speak, therefore, of the 
observance of the Sabbath, of Lent, of rites, of Independ- 
ence day, etc. Observation, corresponding to the second 
meaning, signifies the noticing, the perceiving, or the 
cognizing of an object through the senses ; — most fre- 
quently through the eye. Observation is also used in 

16 , 



242 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

the sense of remark. ''The Pharisees were curious in 
external observances; the astronomers are curious in 
celestial ohserzmtions.'" — Webster, 

What concrete noun do we have from observe? 

95. Ought, should. Both these words express obliga- 
tion ; but ought is the more binding. Should usually 
expresses social obligation; ought, moral obligation. 
''We ought to obey God rather than man." We ought 
to honor our parents, to pay our debts, to speak the truth, 
and the like. We should be neat and clean, cheerful, and 
painstaking in the performance of every duty. Ought 
is derived from ozve ; hence its moral force. 

Study and use incumbent (adjective). 

96. Peaceable, peaceful. Those who are inclined to 
peace , who desire peace , who are averse to discord or 
fighting, are peaceable. Peaceful qualifies what is in 
a state of peace, or what has the appearance, the aspect, 
the character, of peace. A sleeping infant has a peace- 
ful expression. We speak of a peaceful valley, a peace- 
ful landscape, peaceful seclusion. 

"Live peaceably with all men." Rom. 12:18. 

97. Posture, attitude. Both words have regard to the 
visible disposition of the parts of the body. Posture 
relates to their position merely ; attitude is posture with 
expression added. Attitude has for its object the set- 
ting forth and exhibiting of some emotion or sentiment ; 
as, an attitude of wonder, of grief, of despair, of devo- 
tion, of admiration. Posture implies no expression. 
Hence we speak of a horizontal posture, an erect pos- 
ture, a kneeling posture. We are always in some pos- 
ture, but not always in an attitude. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. ' 243 

How does an attitude differ from a gesture? 

98. Persuade, convince. To convince is to satisfy the 
understanding with argument and evidence; to persuade 
is to move another's will to specific action or behavior. 
He convinced me that I was in error. No argument can 
convince an obstinately partisan man. 

''Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." Acts 
26:28. 

Study convict, confirm. 

99. Pride, vanity. The proud man cherishes a feeling 
of self-sufficiency, self-satisfaction. Wrapped up in his 
own estimation, he is indifferent to the opinions of others. 
While overrating his own merit, the proud man under- 
rates that of others. He arrogates to himself undue 
importance and worth. The vain man is greedy of admi- 
ration ; he is inordinately fond of praise, — of praise which 
he knows he does not deserve. The proud man admires 
himself; the vain man courts the admiration of others. 
Pride is hateful ; vanity is ridiculous and contemptible. 
There are persons too proud to stoop to anything so 
hollow as vanity. There is a species of pride of which 
we need not be ashamed, — honest pride, honorable pride. 
Haughtiness is pride strikingly exhibited through one's 
bearing and manner. 

Note the derivation and distinctive meaning of super- 
cilious. 

100. Present, introduce. Those who strain to be fine 
often improperly use present for introduce. "A person is 
presented at court, and on official occasions to our 
President ; but persons who are unknown to each other 
are introduced hy a common acquaintance. And ini these 



244 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

introductions it is the younger that is introduced to the 
older ; the lower to the higher in place or social position ; 
the gentleman to the lady. A lady should say, as a rule, 
that Mr. Blank was introduced to her, not that she was 
introduced to Mr. Blank.'' — Ayres. 

loi. Recollect, remember. When an idea of a past 
experience recurs to the mind spontaneously, or with 
little exertion on our part, it is remembered; when it 
recurs as the result of special exertion, of purposed effort, 
it is recollected. Hence I say properly, ''I do not re- 
member,'' and ''I can not recollect." 

Any difference between remembrances and reminis- 
cences? 

102. Reveal, divulge. To reveal is to make known 
what is concealed ; to divulge is to go further and spread 
abroad what has been revealed. I reveal a secret to a 
friend; he divulges the secret by making it generally 
known. 

Produce a word synonymous with reveal. 

103. Revenge, avenge. We revenge ourselves ; we 
avenge others. To punish an injury done to another, 
is to avenge ; to return evil for evil done to ourselves, 
is to revenge. Vengeance is the conjugate noun of both 
verbs. ''To avenge is an act of retributive justice; to 
revenge is an act of passion." 

Study retaliate, reciprocate. 

104. Remuneration, compensation, recompense. A per- 
son is remunerated fo-r his personal services done to the 
remunerator; he is compensated for losses incurred in be- 
half of the person making the compensation. Or one 
may, out of charity, give to a poor person, in compen- 



PRA.CTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 245 

sation for a loss which he had unfortunately sustained. 
Hence we say, ''What can compensate for the loss of 
honor?" A railway company compensates its patrons 
for any injury sustained by the latter in a railway acci- 
dent. A person is recofiipensed for long, assiduous, and 
specially meritorious service. This sense of recompense 
is happily exemplified in the following scripture: "For 
thou shalt be recompensed at the resurrection of the 
just." Luke 14: 14. 
Study requital, meed. 

105. Safe, secure. One who is simply out of danger is 
safe; one who is removed beyond the reach of danger is 
secure. Safe has regard to the past and the present; 
secure, to the future as well. Security further implies 
the absence of all fear of danger. Persons at sea are not 
safe during a storm ; they are not secure from the dangers 
of the sea till they have reached the shore. It is the 
prerogative of a Christian to regard himself safe for 
time, and secure for eternity. So far as security is a 
feeling or sense of safety, it may itself become a danger; 
as, ''While they slept secure, the enemy attacked the 
camp." We also speak of a dangerous individual being 
secure when he is imprisoned. 

"No man can rational^ account himself secure unless 
he could command all the chances of the world." 

106. Seem, appear. "What seems is in the mind; what 
appears is external. . Things appear as they present them- 
selves to the eye; they seem as they are represented to 
the mind. Things appear good or bad, as far as we can 
judge by our senses. Things seem right or wrong as 
we determine by reflection. Perception and sensation 



246 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

have to do with appearing; reflection and comparison, 
with seeming. When things are not what they appear, 
our senses are deceived; when things are not what they 
seem, our judgment is at fault.'' — Graham. 
What is an apparition? 

107. Sensual, sensuous. Sensual always implies moral 
wrong; sensuous is merely a term of science. All objects 
capable of affecting the senses are sensuous. By sensu- 
ous poetry is meant poetry replete with concrete terms, 
such as are fitted to suggest mental images and pictures. 
A sensual man is one devoted to the pleasures of 
sense, i. e., to those of appetite and the fleshly lusts. 
It is closely related in meaning to licentious. 

Study sensible with regard to its varied meanings. 

108. Site, situation. A thing rests on a site, and 
stands in a situation. The site is merely the ground on 
which the building, or other object, is erected or reposes. 
The situation embraces all the local aspects and features 
in which a thing is placed. 

It is a beautiful situation for a house, but the site is, 
for many reasons, undesirable. 

''Beautiful for sihiation, the joy of the whole earth, 
is Mount Zion/' Ps. 48 :2. 

109. Silent, reticent, taciturn. To be silent is simply 
to refrain from speaking. One is reticent when he is 
silent about a particular thing, or keeps back something 
that others have a right to know. A taciturn person is 
one whose temperament disposes to silence. Taciturnity 
is a matter of habit and of temper. Taciturn is the an- 
tithesis of loquacious. A very talkative person is some- 
times silent but never taciturn. 



PRACTICAL SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 247 

"The cause of Addison's taciturnity was a natural dif- 
fidence in the company of strangers." — Knox. 

Study tacit, 

no. Sneer, jeer, scoff. ''The verb to sneer impHes to 
cast contempt indirectly or by covert expression. To 
jeer is stronger, and denotes the use of severe, sarcastic 
reflections. To scoff is stronger still, implying the use 
of insolent mockery and derision." — Webster. 

''Knowing this first, that there shall come in the last 
days scoffers, walking after their own lusts.'' 2 Peter 

3:3- 

Produce two additional synonyms with sneer, etc. 

111. Stimulant, stimulus. The former word is gener- 
ally used to designate anything material taken into the 
system in order to stir and quicken the nerves ; as all malt 
and spirituous liquors, tea, coffee, morphine, etc. The 
latter often expresses an abstract idea ; as, "The hope 
of immortality is a powerful stimidus to Christian en- 
deavor." Light is a stimulus [not stimulant] to the 
eye ; air-waves, to the ear. Stinmlus is akin in meaning 
to incentive. Stimulate is the conjugate verb to both 
these nouns. 

112. Talkative, loquacious, garrulous. A talkative 
person is by nature disposed tO' talk much, but usually 
restrains himself somewhat. A loquacious person not 
only talks much but has also a very ready flow of words 
at command. Persons — especially women — of high ani- 
mal spirits are, as a rule, given to loquacity. Loqua- 
cious persons seldom think below the surface of things. 
Persons who indulge in prosy, tiresome, long-drawn-out 
talk are garrulous. Illiterate old men are particularly 
prone to garrulity. Garrulous persons take delight in 



248 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

impartinig petty and valueless information. They are 
full of petty experiences, in detailing which they occupy 
the time of others. Feebleness of mind and egotism 
breed garrulity. The loquacious wear out our, ears; the 
gamtlous, our patience. 
Study palaver. 

113. Temerity, rashness. Though closely allied in 
sense, these words differ slightly in their use and appli- 
cation. Temerity is from the Latin, and is the more 
select and dignified; rashness is from the Anglo-Saxon, 
and is the more common and energetic. Temerity quali- 
fies that hent of mind which disposes one to regard dan- 
ger with undue contempt. Rashness qualifies the act, 
and implies that such act is prompted by mere impulse. 
Temerity is shown in hasty decisions, and in the conduct 
to which they lead. The habit of regarding danger with 
unreasonable contempt is temerity. Rushing into dan- 
ger from thoughtlessness or excited feeling is rashness. 

Can you think of some character in history who evinced 
temerity? Of one who acted rashly? 

114. Visitor, visitant. A human guest is a visitor; z, 
non-human guest — an angel, a specter, or pestilence — 
is a visitant. 

How is visitation properly used? 

115. Worth, value. The worth of anything is intrin- 
sic; the value is accidental. Its value is determined by 
what it does for you, or by the price it will bring in the 
market. A thing's worth is its inherent merit or excel- 
lence, and is therefore permanent. Value is subject to 
change. 

"The picture,'' he said, ''was valued at one hundred 
dollars, but I think it is worth much more," 



PART VII. 

LEARNING BY DOING. 

To be successful in public address or in writing for 
the public, one must first be in possession of a large stock 
of ideas and a correspondingly large stock of words. 
Artists express ideas in colors and in stone, inventors in 
machinery, and so on, but orators and writers must ex- 
press their thoughts through the medium of words. All 
the great masters of our noble tongue are indefatigable 
students of the dictionary, of etymology, of works on 
synonyms, etc., but they all testify to the fact that the 
only safe, certain, and thorough method of mastering 
words, with their contained ideas, is in the conscientious, 
sympathetic reading of good literature. Dictionaries like 
ours did not exist at the time of Spenser, Shakespeare, 
and Milton. It was chiefly through reading and con- 
versation that they acquired their wealth of words. 
''Words which we acquire directly from a good writer,'' 
says Professor Hart, ''make a definite impression, and are 
retained in the memory. They have a vitality which is 
lost in the columns of a dictionary. When we repeat 
them in our writing we feel that we are safe, because we 
are acting under the best guidance.'' 

Thomas Carlyle made himself a storehouse of words, 
by mastering the works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and 
the masterpieces of the German writers, Goethe and 

(249) 



250 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Schiller. Heniry Drummond, in turn, stocked himself 
with words by absorbing Carlyle's and Ruskin's great 
books. But these and all other famous writers and ora- 
tors were enthusiastic students of our English Bible. 
The pages of their books are luminous with Biblical allu- 
sions. No other literary work comprises so vast a store 
of the simple, strong, crisp, idiomatic words of the Eng- 
lish language as does the Bible. It is here that we find 
the native purity and vigor of our tongue crystallized. 

I can not do better than to insert here the testimony, as 
to the literary value of the Bible, of men who can speak 
as those having authority. Of John Ruskin, Professor 
Cook, of Yale University, writes : — - 

''Jotin Ruskin is certainly the greatest master that the present 
century has produced of pure, idiomatic, vigorous, and eloquent 
English prose; and as the first volume of his 'Modern Painters,' 
perhaps his best work, appeared over forty years ago, when he 
was a recent 'Graduate of Oxford,' his style was perfectly formed 
while he was yet a young man. How was it formed? In one 
of his latest writings he has told us that in his childhood, as a 
part of his home education, his mother required him to commit 
to memory, and repeat to her, passages from the Bible. A simi- 
lar custom, as some of us old men know, prevailed here in New 
England over half a century ago, and I hope that in some families 
it lingers still. Ruskin gives us the exact list, twenty-six in 
number, of the psalms and chapters which he thus learned by 
heart ; and as the selection was in the main an excellent one, we 
need not seek further for the secret of his admirable diction 
and perfect command of English phraseology." 

Referring to his knowledge of the Bible acquired by 
studying it under the guidance of his mother, Ruskin 
himself said : — 

"And truly, though I have picked up the elements of a little 
further knowledge — in mathematics, meteorology, and the like, 



LEARNING BY DOING. 25 1 

in after life, — and owe not a little to the teaching of many peo- 
ple, this maternal installation of my mind in that property of 
chapters, I count very confidently the most precious, and, on the 
whole, the one essential part of all my education." 

Macaulay wrote: — • 

"Bunyan's English was the English of the Bible. By con- 
stant perusal his mind was thoroughly steeped in Holy Scripture; 
he thought its thoughts, spoke its words, adopted its images. 
'In no book,' writes Mr. Green, 'do we see more clearly the new 
imaginative force which had been given to the common life of 
Englishmen by their study of the Bible.' Those who desire to 
become, like him, masters of our grand mother tongue, and use 
it as an instrument for swaying the hearts, and elevating the 
souls, and instructing the minds of others, can take no better 
way to this end — to say nothing of its higher purposes — than 
to familiarize themselves, as he did, by constant perusal, with 
our English Bible." 

The following is from Professor Bowen : — 

''Leaving these general considerations, let us now come to 
particulars, and consider that aspect of the study of the English 
Bible which makes it interesting to the mere lover of literature. 
Look first at the diction, and weigh its merits regarded simply 
as a specimen of English prose. The opinion of scholars is 
unanimous that its excellence in this respect is unmatched; 
English literature has nothing equal to it, and is indeed largely 
indebted to conscious or unconscious imitation of it for many 
of its best and most characteristic qualities. The diction is 
remarkable for clearness, simplicity, and strength. It is as simple 
and natural as the prattle of children at play, yet never lacking 
in grace or dignity, or in variety and expressive force. Till 
our attention is called to it, we seldom notice what I may call 
the homeliness of the style, the selection of short and pithy 
Saxon turns of expression, and the wealth and strength of 
idiomatic phrase. One who should attempt to imitate it would 
easily lapse into vulgar and colloquial language, or, in striving 
to avoid this fault, into a certain primness and stiffness of 



252 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Speech, which is even worse. In truth, it can not be imitated; 
to write such prose as that of our common Version is now one 
of the lost arts. And I have not yet mentioned what is to many- 
persons the most peculiar and most striking charm of the style; 
that is, its musical quality, the silvery ring of the sentences, and 
the rich and varied melody of its cadences whenever the sense 
comes to a close." 

In his ''History of Elizabethan Literature/' Saints- 
bury writes : — • 

''But great as are Bacon and Raleigh, they can not approach, 
as writers of prose, the company of scholarly divines who pro- 
duced — what is probably the greatest prose work in any lan- 
guage — the Authorized Version of the Bible in English." 

''Intense study of the Bible,'' wrote Coleridge, "will 
keep any writer from being vulgar in point of style.'' 

After President Lincoln had delivered his Gettysburg 
oration, he was asked to tell how he had mastered his 
inimitable diction. His answer was, in part, that he had 
for many years been an eager, untiring student of the 
English Bible. 

I shall indicate below some of the Bible passages that 
should be studied especially for their native vigor, de- 
lightful simplicity, flowing rhythm, and noble eloquence. 

The following requirements and directions are given : 
(i) To supply the student with matter for practise in 
composition;* (2) to Iielp him to a mastery of a generous 
vocabulary; (3) to incite the learner to vigorous, inde- 
pendent thinking. The teacher will find it easy to sup- 
plement the exercises here given. 

I. Study from a good dictionary the following terms: 
Paraphrase, amplify, abstract (epitome), phraseology, 
euphemism. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 253 

2. Substitute other words or phrases for those in bold 
type. The source of the Nile was unknown for ages. 
The cruelty of the officer proved him to be a pitiless man. 
We have seldom heard more encouraging news. The 
rocks were covered with prodigal verdure. They were 
treated to a sumptuous banquet. In the field he was ar- 
dent and intrepid ; elsewhere he was effeminate and 
irresolute. 

3. Write a paraphrase of — 

(a) Cowards die many times before their death; 
The valiant never taste of death but once. 

— Shakespeare. 

(b) Condemn the fault, not the actor of it. — Id. 

(c) He is well paid that is well satisfied. 

Note. — The following rules on Paraphrasing are taken 
from ''Lectures on Teaching/' by Sir Joshua Fitch : — 

Rule i. Do not think you have to find an equivalent 
for every word. Read the whole passage and turn it 
over in the mind ; keep in view its drift and general pur- 
port, and catch the thought in preference to the language. 
Then rewrite it so as to convey the collective meaning of 
the passage, not a mere translation of its zvords. 

Rule 2. Do not be afraid of using the same word, if 
it is clearly the best, and an equivalent can not be found. 

Rule 3. Be sure that the sentences are short and 
simple. Break- up long and invohcd passages into 
shorter ones, and combine disconnected ones by the use 
of suitable conjunctions. Guard with special care against 
the vicious. use of relatives, participles, and frequency of 
connective words such as ''and," "so," "but," etc. 

Rule 4. Never use two words where one would suf- 
fice to convey your thoughts ; nor a hard word where an 



254 liiE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

easy one would convey your meaning. At the same 
time, in dealing with very concise writers it is not neces- 
sary to try to make the paraphrase as short as the orig- 
inal. 

Rule 5. Do not translate all the metaphors, or all the 
poetry into prose. A slight change of figurative lan- 
guage is quite legitimate as long as the meaning is pre- 
served. 

Rule 6. Keep in mind the general style of the extract, 
and if it be grave or playftU, maintain its character as far 
as you can. In conclusion, be careful that the result 
shall be a perfectly readable piece of English which would 
be intelligible to those zvho had no knozviedge of the 



4. From a physical geography or any other work on 
nature get all the information you can bearing upon the 
several kinds of clouds. From memory reproduce in 
writing, in your own words, the information thus gained. 

5. Write six balanced sentences, each of which shall 
express a contrast between a horse and a cow. 

Make each sentence as neat and concise as you can. 

6. Substitute other words or phrases for those in bold 
type :— 

The better part of valor is discretion. A general 
recipe for getting ideas is hardly easier to give than a 
recipe for being great. Ideas are had through new ex- 
periences, new acquaintanceships, new sights; through 
hard thinking, through hard reading, — in short, through 
living. Words are the embalmed ideas of men. Acqui- 
sition of ideas furthers acquisition of words, and vice 
versa. To some extent ideas can be bred by the study of 



LEARNING BY DOING. 255 

mere words. The attempt to discriminate between words 
that mean nearly, not quite, the same thing, results in a 
distinct gain in thought, and in power of thought. 
Shakespeare's works contain about fifteen thousand dif- 
ferent words ; the King James version of the Bible fewer 
than six thousand. To gain new words and new ideas, 
the student must compel himself to read slowly. Im- 
patient to hurry on and learn how the tale or poem ends, 
many a youth is accustomed to read so rapidly as to miss 
the best part of what the author is trying to say. To get 
at the thoughts and really to retain the valuable expres- 
sion, the student must scrutinize and ponder as he rer.ds. 
Each word must be thoroughly understood; its exact 
value in the sentence must be grasped. The dictionary is 
not a magic book, ready to explain every delicate shad- 
ing that a great author gives a word in a particular con- 
nection. In reading silently it is due the author to read 
with as much expression as if we were pronouncing the 
word aloud. One should mentally give every word and 
phrase its proper accent, should feel the value of every 
punctuation mark. Literature is full of words descrip- 
tive of things that all have seen or heard. (Recall two 
adjectives that designate things apprehended through the 
senses.) 

7. The thirteenth chapter of First Corinthians is given 
below. For one lesson commit to memory the first seven 
verses. Practise until you can give them proper oral 
expression. 

For another lesson do the same with the remaining 
six verses. 

I. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, 
and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tink- 
ling cymbal. 



256 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

2. And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand 
all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, 
so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am 
nothing. 

3. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and 
though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it 
profiteth me nothing. 

4. Charity suffereth long, arid* is kind ; charity envieth not ; 
charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, 

5. Doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, 
is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil ; 

6. Rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth; 

7. Beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, 
endureth all things. 

8. Charity never faileth ; but whether there be prophecies, 
they shall fail ; whether there be tongues, they shall cease ; 
whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away. 

9. For we know in part, and we prophesy in part. 

10. But when that which is perfect is come, then that which 
is in part shall be done away. 

11. When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as 
a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put 
away childish things. 

12. For now we see "through a glass, darkly; but then face 
to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also 
I am known. 

13. And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the 
greatest of these is charity. 

8. Study the following passage till you firmly grasp 
the thought ; then, in not more than half as many words, 
write the gist of the passage. 

All real and wholesome enjoyments possible to man have 
been just as possible to him, since first he was made of the earth, 
as they are now; and they are possible to him chiefly in peace. 
To watch the corn grow, and the blossoms set ; to draw hard 
breath over ploughshare or spade; to read, to think, to love, to 
hope, to pray, — ^these are the things that make men happy; they 



LEARNING BY DOING. 257 

have always had the power of doing these, they never will have 
power to do more. The world's prosperity or adversity depends 
upon our knowing and teaching these few things: but upon 
iron, or glass, or electricity, or steam, in nowise. — Ruskin. 

9. Form adjectives from system^ define^ pronoun, Her- 
cules, compare, hero, charity, eulogy, decision, prevail- 
ing, Plato, Paul, academy, capacity, permit, Aristotle, 
metropolis, and Naples. 

10. Write a short essay, — ''Guarding Our Words,'' — 
and work into it the ideas in the following passages : 

Seest thou a man that is hasty in his words? there is 
more hope of a fool than of him. — Solomon. 

It is as easy to call back a stone thrown from the hand, 
as to call back the word that is spoken. — Menander. 

Cast forth thy act, thy word, into the ever-living, 
ever- working universe ; it is a seed-grain that can not die ; 
unnoticed to-day, it will be found flourishing as a banyan 
grove, perhaps, alas, as a hemlock forest, after a thou- 
sand years. — Carlyle. 

Oh, many a shaft at random sent 

Finds mark the archer little meant. 

And many a word at random spoken 

May s<Dothe, or wound, a heart that's broken. 

— Scott. 

By thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words 
thou shalt be condemned.— /^i-//^. 

11. Write a carefully- worded paragraph in explana- 
tion of the following statement. Explain briefly the 
word potentially. 

An acorn contains all forests potentially. — Shelley. 

12. The following passage is from one of Dr. Cuyler's 
sermons. Write a paraphrase of it, in language as nearly 

17 



258 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

literal as it can be made. Be prepared to point out 
orally the figures in the original. 

In Great Britain no shipmaster is permitted to use an anchor 
which has not been tested, and stamped with a government mark. 
If we wish to know whether our faith has the King's mark on 
it, we must examine His Word. A spurious faith, full of flaws, 
can not be relied on in a hurricane. The metal of our faith, so 
to speak, must be from God's Scripture foundry. It must be 
lowered with entire trust upon God, and not upon ourselves. It 
must fasten itself to the everlasting veracity, and power, and 
love, of the Almighty. Every link in the chain cable is a divine 
promise. When in the darkest night we heave out this anchor 
we may wait confidently for the dawning of the day. 

13. Explain the derivation of academy, volcano, mac- 
adamize, calico, milliner, panic, epicure, tariff, sardine, 
atlas, hygiene, dahlia, tantalize, and daisy. 

14. You have just bought your first bicycle, and expect 
to write of it to a friend who has no interest in cycling. 
Tell him how much easier it was to learn to ride it than 
you had expected, and that you are looking forward with 
great pleasure to the excursions you will soon be able to 
make. State tersely what you think are the advantages 
and benefits of riding a ''wheel,'' and thus persuade your 
friend to follow your example. 

15. Work the following phrases into sentences: A 
fellow-creature ; a fellow-pilgrim ; a fellow-traveler ; the 
right hand of fellowship; a fellow-citizen; as the crow 
flies ; come off with flying colors ; fly in the face of ; a 
flying column; set on foot; on the footing of; foot it; 
free from; free with; free course; a free translation; 
free of ; a friend of ; a friend to. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 259 

16. Write an essay of three pages (letter size) on 
Che erf Illness, and work into it the ideas in the following 
quotations : — ■ 

A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. — Solomon. 

Cheerfulness is health. — Haliburton. 

Wondrous is the strength of cheerfulness, and its power of 
endurance — the cheerful man will do more in the same time, 
will do it better, will persevere in it longer, than the sad or 
sullen. — Carlyle. 

Oh, give us the man who sings at his work. — Ih. 

Every one must have felt that a cheerful friend is like a sunny 
day, which sheds its brightness on all around; and most of us 
can, as we choose, make of this world either a palace or a 
prison. — Liihhock. 

The true source of cheerfulness is benevolence. The soul 
that perpetually overflows with kindness and sympathy will 
always be cheerful. — Godwin. 

The habit of looking on the bright side of every event is 
worth more than a thousand pounds. — Johnson. 

You find yourself refreshed by the presence of cheerful peo- 
ple. — Child. 

ly. After committing to memory the following pas- 
sages, practise reading them till you can give them proper 
expression :— 

In men whom men condemn as ill 
I find so much of goodness still, 
In men whom men pronounce divine 

I find so much of sin and blot, 
I hesitate to draw a line 

Between the two where God has not. 

—Joaquin Miller. 

We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths ; 

In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 
We should count time by heart-throbs : he most lives 

Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

— Bailey. 



26o THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Howe'er it be, it seems to me 

'Tis only noble to be good : 
Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 

— Tennyson. 

1 8. Displace the words in bold type with equivalent 
words or phrases : — 

In every gentle and submissive way, Jesus tried to 
please those with whom He came in contact. Because 
He was so gentle and unobtrusive, the scribes and elders 
supposed that He would be easily influenced by their 
teachings. . . . They [rabbis] claimed that it was 
their office to explain the Scriptures, and that it was His 
place to accept their interpretation. They were indig- 
nant that He should stand in opposition to their word. 
They knew that no authority could be found in Scrip- 
ture for their traditions. They realized that in spiritual 
understanding Jesus was far in advance of them. . . . 
'Tt is written" was His reason for every act that varied 
from the family customs. . . . They [His brothers] 
insisted that the traditions must be heeded as if they were 
the requirements of God. They even regarded the pre- 
cepts of men more highly than the Word of God, and they 
were greatly annoyed at the clear penetration of Jesus in 
distinguishing between the false and the true. 

19. Study from a dictionary the italicized words below 
till you fully catch their meaning. Then use them in 
sentences of your own. Be prepared to spell them. 

(a) A brave retreat is a brave exploit. 

(b) A carper can cavil at anything. 

(c) A custom more honored in the breach than in the 
observance. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 26 1 

(d) He spoke in a dogmatical tone. 

(e) A fault confessed is half redressed. 

(/') A man never surfeits of too much honesty. 
(g) Dexterity comes by experience. 
(h) Faint praise is disparagement. 
(J) Temporising is sometimes great wisdom. 
(/) Too much consulting confounds. 
Find at least one synonym of dogmatical, dexterity, 
disparagement, breach, and confounds. 

20. Write a short essay on "The Evils of Idleness," 
incorporating the ideas in the following passages : — 

An idle brain is the devil's workshop. — English Proverb. 

Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do. — Watts. 

They that do nothing are in the readiest way to do that which 
is worse than nothing. — Zimmermann. 

Idleness is the sepulcher of virtue. — Mad. Roland. 

Idleness is the key of beggary. — Spurgeon. 

If you are idle you are on the way to ruin, and there are 
few stopping-places upon it. It is rather a precipice than a road. 
— Beecher. 

The way to be nothing is to do nothing. — Howe. 

The devil tempts all other men, but idle men tempt the devil. 
— Turkish Proverb. 

An idle man is like a house that hath no walls ; the devils 
may enter on every side. — Chaucer. 

21. By observation and reading learn all you can re- 
garding the bee. Embody your information in the best 
English you can command. 

22. The following adjectives apply primarily to ma- 
terial objects, that may be known through the senses. 
But each may be raised to a higher use, being made to 



262 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

designate some trait of character, or some other abstract 
idea. Observe the various duties that the adjective high 
was persuaded into doing at the call of Shakespeare. 
He writes of high feats, high hope, high heaven, high 
exploits, high deeds, high desert, high perfection, high 
designs, high good trim, high descent, high resolve, high 
reward. Every one knows what is meant by fine sand, 
Hue cloth, fine salt, etc. ; but we may speak of fine deeds, 
fine sense of honor, fine courage, fi^ne bearing, and so on. 
Now, make each of the following adjectives modify as 
many abstract nouns as you think it properly can modify : 
rough, hitter, insipid, smooth, soft, keen, dull, brilliant, 
misty, sharp, cold, sweet, sour, transparent, hazy, burn- 
ing, glowing, beaming. 

23. In the following sentences substitute a short or 
simple word of like meaning for each word that is ital- 
icized : — 

Will you accord him this favor? 
See that the apartment is ventilated. 
Such penurious tendencies are not to be extirpated. 
This is to be his domicile. 

Let there be an interstice between the two parts. 
The termination of his career does not fulfil the prom- 
ise of its commencement. 

She does not speak even her vernacular with propriety. 

You had better put an impediment on his rashness. 

We shall have a collation before the ride. 

To effectuate your purpose, get his influence. 

The school-room is palatial. 

The new training field will enhance athletics. 

He manipulates the mandolin well. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 263 

The architect will make good UvSe of all the potential- 
ities of the old building. 

He is to inaugurate the new drill to-morrow. 

My companion seemed lost in his cogitations. 

To approximate to such a standard, is better than to 
reach a lower one. 

He has precipitated his return to this country. 

The lecturer is a fine-looking personage, but not an 
interesting speaker. 

This fact alone ought not to invalidate his argument. 

Why does he take cognizance of mere trifles ? 

The celerity and the dexterity of his movements are 
remarkable. 

The singer has a captivating manner. 

The mendacity of this report is shameful. 

It is a fine locality. 

24. Write a paraphrase of — 

Keep in the midst of life. Don't isolate yourself. Be among 
men, and among things, and among troubles, and among diffi- 
culties and obstacles. You remember Goethe's words : "Talent 
develops itself in solitude; character, in the stream of life." — 

Drummond. 

State orally — in good English — who Goethe was. Of 
what well-known book is Drummond the author? 

25. State in well-written English all the information 
you can get in regard to the ''Useo of Winds." Do not 
neglect paragraphing. 

26. Commit to memory the following quotations. 
Write a paraphrase of any one of them, except the first. 

And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, 
there was a great earthquake ; and the sun became black as 
sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood; 



264 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

And the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig tree 
casteth her untimely figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind. 

And the heaven departed as a scroll when it is rolled to- 
gether; and every mountain and island were moved out of their 
places. 

And the kings of the earth, and the great men, and the 
rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every 
bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in the dens and in 
the rocks of the mountains ; 

And said to the mountains and rocks. Fall on us, and hide 
us from the face of Him that sitteth on the throne, and from 
the wrath of the Lamb; 

For the great day of His wrath is come; and who shall be 
able to stand? Rev. 6:12-17. 

Pleasures are like poppies .spread. 
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ; 
Or like the snow-falls in the river, 
A moment white — then melts forever; 
Or like the borealis race. 
That flits ere you can point their place; 
Or like the rainbow's lovely form 
Evanishing amid the storm. 

— Burns. 

Too low they build who build beneath the stars. — Young. 
Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see; 
That mercy I to others show. 
That mercy show to me. 

—Pope. 

'Tis an old maxim in the schools 
That flattery's the food of fools; 
Yet now and then your men of wit 
Will condescend to take a bit. 

— Swift. 

2y. Look up the etymology of the following words. 
Be prepared to spell and define each word: Galvanism, 



LEARNING BY DOING. 265 

guillotine^ jovial, July, August, simony, bacchanalian, 
boycott, dunce, flora, fauna, meander, palace, mercurial, 
saturnine, 

28. Make sentences containing the following phrases : 
Come short of ; come to nothing ; come to one's self ; 
come to the front ; come to blows ; come to want ; come of 
age ; with an eye to ; keep an eye on ; have in one's eye ; 
in the mind's eye ; drop off ; drop away ; drop in ; drop 
out; drop down; drop a line; drop a controversy; drop 
an acquaintance ; drop anchor ; run after ; run across ; run 
down; run out; run a risk; run amuck; run riot; run to 
seed ; run counter to ; run a blockade. 

29. Explain, in the form of a carefully-written essay, 
how dew and frost are formed. 

Determine for yoiurself the exact title of the essay. 

30. Simplify the wording of the following phrases : — 
At the expiration of five years ; extreme felicity ; incur 

the danger; a sanguinary engagement; accepted signifi- 
cation (of a word, etc.); exceedingly opulent; paternal 
sentiments ; a votary of Bacchus ; in this melancholy pre- 
dicament ; ''an individual designated by the not uncom- 
mon cognomen of Smith;" the precursor of a stupendous 
atmospheric disturbance. 

Look up the etymology of precursor, sanguinary, mel- 
ancholy, and cognomen. Produce several synonyms of 
opulent; also of precursor, 

31. Commit to memory the following passages. 
Learn to give them eflfective vocal expression. 

Therefore whosoever heareth these sayings of Mine, and 
doeth them, I will liken him unto a wise man, which built his 
house upon a rock : and the rain descended, and the floods came, 



266 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell not : 
for it was founded upon a rock. And every one that heareth 
these sayings of Mine, and doeth them not, shall be likened unto 
a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand : and the 
rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and 
beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it. 
Matt. 7 : 24-27. 

Come unto Me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and 
I will give you rest. Take My yoke upon you, and learn of 
Me; for I am meek and lowly in heart; and ye shall find rest^ 
unto your souls. For My yoke is easy, and My burden is light. 
Matt. II : 28-30. 

He that has light within his own clear breast 

May sit in the center and enjoy bright day; 

But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts 

Benighted walks under the midday sun. 

— Milton. 

True worth is in being, not in seeming — 

In doing, each day that goes by, 
Some little good, not in the dreaming 

Of great things to do by and by; 
For whatever men say in their blindness, 

In spite of the fancies of youth, 
There is nothing so kingly as kindness. 

And nothing so royal as truth. 

— Alice Cary. 

32. Write a short essay on ''Kindness." Study the 
following quotations for their suggestiveness : — 

For He [God] is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil. 
Luke 6 : 35. 

Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound to- 
gether. — Goethe. 

Kindness is a language the dumb can speak, and the deaf 
can hear and understand. — Bovee. 

It is good for us to think no grace or blessing truly ours 
till we are aware that God has blessed some one else with it 
through us. — Phillips Brooks. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 267 

The true and noble way to kill a foe is not to kill him; you, 
with kindness, may so change him that he shall cease to be a 
foe, and then he's slain. — Aleyn. 

When death, the great reconciler, has come, it is never of 
our tenderness that we repent, but of our severity. — George Eliot. 

The greatest thing a man can do for his Heavenly Father is 
to be kind to some of His other children. — Anon. 

It is one of the beautiful compensations of life that no man 
can sincerely try to help another, without helping himself. — 
Bailey. 

33. Substitute equivalent words and phrases for those 
in bold type in the following excerpt: — 

Let no one then underrate the importance of the study 
of words. Daniel Webster was often seen absorbed in 
the study of an EngHsh dictionary. Lord Chatham read 
the foHo dictionary of Bailey twice through, examining' 
each word attentively, dwelling on its peculiar import 
and modes of construction, and thus endeavoring to bring 
the whole range of our language completely under his 
control. One of the most distinguished American 
authors is said to be in the habit of reading the diction- 
ary through about once a year. His choice of fresh and 
forceful terms has provoked at times the charge of 
pedantry; but, in fact, he has but fearlessly used the 
wealth of the language that lies buried in the pages of 
Noah Webster. It is only by thus working in the mines 
of language that one can fill his storehouses of expres- 
sion, so as to be above the necessity of using cheap and 
common words, or even using these with no subtle dis- 
crimination of their meanings. William Pinkney, the 
great American advocate, studied the English language 
profoundly, not so much to acquaint himself with the 
nice distinctions of its philosophical terms, as to acquire 
copiousness, variety, and splendor of expression. He 



268 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

studied the dictionary, page after page, content with 
nothing less than a mastery of the whole language, as a 
lody of expression, in its primitive derivative stock. 
Rufus Choate once said to one of his students : ''You 
don't want a diction gathered from the newspapers, 
caught from the air, common and unsuggestive ; but you 
want one whose every word is full-freighted with sug- 
gestion and association, with beauty and power." — Wm. 
Mathews. 

34. Embody in sentences the following words and 
phrases : Brusque, pert, overweening, priggish, fish for 
compliments, pique one's self, opinionated, coy, sheepish, 
without beat of drum, vaunt, flourish of trumpets, tall 
talk, bombast, on stilts, in high feather, charlatan, jubi- 
lant, bravado. 

35. Embody in a concisely- worded essay all the infor- 
mation you can get regarding the ant. 

36. Write a paragraph of not fewer than seventy-five 
words on each of the following topics: — 

(a) The Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying 

Alone. 

(b) A Plea for Short Lessons. 

(c) The Pleasant and the Unpleasant Features of 

Writing Compositions. 

37. Make sentences in which the following phrases find 
a place : The thread of argument ; poisoned words ; hatch 
a plot ; stifle a sigh ; the eloquence of gold ; soil a reputa- 
tion ; a heart of oak ; to stomach an affront ; struck with 
terror ; an icy reception ; to feed with hopes ; the gnawing 
of envy ; the torch of science ; the reins 01 government. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 269 

The foregoing phrases are taken from Professor 
Meiklejohn's "Art of Writing EngHsh." 

38. Write an ampHfied paraphrase of the thought in 
the following stanza :- — 

Scepter and crown 

Must tumble down, 

And in the dust be equal made 

With the poor crooked scythe and spade. 

— Shirley. 

39. Commit to memory the following passages. Am- 
plify any one of them. 

One of the illusions is that the present hour is not the crit- 
ical, decisive hour. Write it on your heart that every day is the 
best day in the year. — Emerson. 

Cast thy bread upon the waters, waft it on with praying breath, 

In some distant, doubtful moment it may save a soul from death. 

When you sleep in solemn silence, 'neath the morn and eve- 
ning dew, 

Stranger hands which you have strengthened may strew lilies 
over you. 

— Anon. 

Worldliness has been defined as looking at things that are 
seen, but only closely enough to see their market value. Spirit- 
uality is that further look which sees their eternal value, which 
realizes that 

''The earth is full of heaven, 
And every common bush afire with God. 

— Drummond. 

The quality of mercy is not strain'd ; 
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless'd ; 
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes: 
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest : it becomes 
The throned monarch better thaix his crown : 



270 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

His scepter shows the force of temporal power. 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; 

But mercy is above this sceptered sway: 

It is enthroned in the heart of kings. 

It is an attribute to God himself, 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 

When mercy seasons justice. 

— Shakespeare, 

The most tremendous word in the English language is the 
short, yet mighty word. No. It has bet-i the pivot on which 
innumerable destinies have turned for this world and the next. 
— Cuyler. 

40. Explain in good English why points on the Pacific 
Coast of North America have a higher mean temperature 
than points in the same latitude on the Atlantic Coast. 

41. Write an account of the industries and products of 
the Philippine Islands. 

42. Write the opposite of each of these words : Per- 
manent, pessimist, magnanimous, indigenous, synonym, 
antediluvian, peroration, analysis, inductive, nadir, trans- 
Atlantic, courage, celestial, supernal, benediction, benev- 
olence. 

43. Write a short essay on ''Politeness." Work into 
your essay the ideas in the following passages : — 

''Politeness," says Witherspoon, "is real kindness kindly ex- 
pressed ;" an admirable definition, and so brief that all may easily 
remember it. This is the sum and substance of all true polite- 
ness. 

Politeness comes from within, from the heart : but if the forms 
of politeness are dispensed with, the spirit and the thing itself 
soon die away. — John Hall. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 27 1 

Politeness is good nature regulated by good sense. — Sidney 
Smith. 

Politeness has been well defined as benevolence in small 
things. — Macaulay. 

A polite man is one who listens with interest to things he 
knows all about, when they are told him by a person wh knows 
nothing about them. — De Morny. 

There are two kinds of politeness ; one says, "See how polite 
I am;" the other, "I would make you happy." — Tomlinson. 

Great talent and success render a man famous ; great merit 
procures respect; great learning, veneration; but politeness alone 
insures love and affection. 

To be overpolite is to be rude. — Japanese Proverb. 

Politeness is as natural to delicate natures as perfume is to 
flowers. — De Finod. 

44. The ninety-first psalm is inserted below. Point 
out the figures of speech, specific terms, and the kind of 
sentences it contains. Commit to memory four verses 
of it each day until the entire psalm is fixed in the mind. 

1. He that dwelleth in the secret place of the Most High 
shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty. 

2. I will say of the Lord, He is my refuge and my fortress : 
my God; in Him will I trust. 

3. Surely He shall deliver thee from the snare of the fowler, 
and from the noisome pestilence. 

4. He shall cover thee with His feathers, and under His 
wings shalt thou trust ; His truth shall be thy shield and buck- 
ler. 

5. Thou shalt not be afraid for the terror by night ; nor for 
the arrow that flieth by day; 

6. Nor for the pestilence that walketh in darkness ; nor for 
the destruction that wasteth at noonday. 

7. A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy 
right hand; but it shall not come nigh thee. 



272 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

8. Onl}^ with thine eyes shalt thou behold and see the reward 
of the wicked. 

9. Because thou hast made the Lord, which is my refuge, 
even the Most High, thy habitation ; 

10. There shall no evil befall thee, neither shall any plague 
come nigh thy dwelling. 

11. For He shall give His angels charge over thee, to keep 
thee in all thy ways. 

12. They shall bear thee up in their hands, lest thou dash thy 
foot against a stone. 

13. Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder; the young 
lion and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet. 

14. Because he hath set his love upon Me, therefore will I 
deliver him; I will set him on high, because he hath known My 
name. 

15. He shall call upon Me, and I will answer him: I will be 
with him in trouble ; I will deliver him, and honor him. 

16. With long life will I satisfy him, and show him My 
salvation. 

45. Write the opposite of each of the following words. 
Be sure to learn the meaning of each : Positive, pros- 
perity, generic, predecessor, superior, opaque, domestic, 
aggravate (make worse), zenith, oriental, promiscuous, 
maximum, absolute, magnify, repulsion, objective, homo- 
geneous. 

46. Write a paragraph of a hundred or more words 
on each of the following topics : — 

(a) Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow'; 

He who would seek for pearls must dive below. 

—Pope. 

(b) Still runs the water when the brook is deep. — Shake- 
speare. 

(c) It is almost as presumptuous to think you can do nothing 
as to think you can do everything. — Brooks. 

(d) The course of nature is the art of God. — Young. 



LEARNING BY DOING. 273 

47. Write a short essay on ''Reading." The follow- 
ing quotations will serve to suggest ideas. 

Get a habit, a passion for reading; not flying from book to 
book, with the squeamish caprice of a literary epicure ; but read 
systematically, closely, thoughtfully, analyzing every subject 
as you go along, and laying it up carefully and safely in your 
memory. It is only by this mode that your information will be 
at the same time extensive, accurate, and useful. — W. Wirt. 

You may glean knowledge by reading, but you must separate 
the chaff from the wheat by thinking. — Anon. 

It is well to read everything of something, and something 
of everything. — Brougham. 

A page digested is better than a volume hurriedly read. — 
Macaulay. 

We should be as careful of the books we read as of the com- 
pany we keep. — T. Edzvards. 

Had I read as much as others, I had remained as ignorant 
as they. — Hobbes. 

Reading maketh a full man. — Bacon. 

Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowl- 
edge; it is thinking makes what we read ours. — Locke. 

The daily study of the Scriptures will have a sanctifying 
influence upon the mind. You will breathe a heavenly atmos- 
phere. Bind this precious volume to your hearts. It will prove 
a friend and guide in perplexity. — Mrs. E. G. White. 

48. Embody the following phrases in sentences : Dis- 
interested motives ; with bated breath ; with open arms ; 
brow-beaten ; influence over ; influence with ; impatient 
with; impatient of (a proceeding); hankering after; 
curry favor with ; pander to ; look askance ; carry coals 
to Newcastle ; bear with ; bear up ; bear inquiry ; breach 
of faith ; breach of promise ; breach of the peace ; take 
leave ; take heed ; take heart ; take to heart ; succeed to ; 
succeed in ; touch upon ; touch at ; taste of ; taste for ; 

18 



274 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

trespass on; trespass against; warn of; warn against; 
responsible for ; responsible to ; pursuant to ; perish with ; 
perish by ; connive at ; embark on ; embark in ; eager to ; 
eager for ; reconcile with ; reconcile to ; at his wits' ends. 

49. Give the history and present meaning of, sincere, 
bankrupt, montebank, egregious, gregarious, desultory, 
canard, poltroon, imbecile, caprice, right, wrong, salary, 
kidnap, tribulation, parlor, scrupulous, supercilious, the 
bitter end, pony, solecism, intoxicate, kind, prejudice, 
disaster, idiot, miser, dun, polite, cynical, explicate, 
astonish, inc^tlcate, dilapidated, radical, cardinal, digress, 
attention, robust, parasol, salient, attract, cosmopolitan, 
automobile, ante beilum, Boer, vandalism, phonograph, 
psychology, recipe, kindergarten, puerile, virile, crusade, 
pompadour, tyro, and boycott. 

^ 50. The following words are often mispronounced — 
some of them by persons of fair education. By consult- 
ing a good dictionary, you can determine how many of 
them you may be in the habit of mispronouncing. 

Abjectly, abnormal, acclimated, acoustics, adhesive, 
admirable, adverse, adobe, aeronaut, again, aggrandize- 
ment, agriculture, ah, a la mode, alder, ally, allopathy, 
altercation, alternate (as an adjective; as a verb), ama- 
teur, antecedent, antepenult, apotheosis, Appalachian, ap- 
paratus, apparent, apricot, Arab, Arabic, area, armistice, 
Asia, aspirant, atoll, attacked, aunt, aurora borealis, 
bachelor, bade, banana, bay rum, bay window, Belial, ben- 
zine, biography, blasphemous, bomb, brigand, bronchitis, 
broth. Buddhism, Burgundy, canine, cassimere, Cauca- 
sian, contrary, chamois, chastisement, chief-justice, 
Christendom, cinchona, clandestine, cleanly, cloth, coad- 



LEARNING BY DOING. 275 

jutor, cockatrice, coffee, coffin, cohesive, combatant, com- 
parable, compeer, complex, compound, component, con- 
demning, condolence, conservator, consummate (as verb; 
as adjective), conversant, circuitous, communist, con- 
tumely, contour, connoisseur, coquetry, construe, casu- 
alty, coterie, coupon, courier, courteous, cowardice, 
creek, culinary, dahlia, damning, Danish, daub, decade, 
decadence, deficit, demoniacal, derisive, designate, desist, 
despicable, destine, didactic, digress, diploma, direct, 
disaster, discern, discourse, disfranchise, docile, dolorous, 
e'er, encore, enervate, envelope, epitome, equable, equa- 
tion, etiquette, erring, European, exemplary, explicable, 
extol, extraordinary, exquisite, excretory, extant, exploit, 
favorite, finance, financier, franchise, frontier, frost, 
gape, gaseous, genealogy, genuine, gibbet, glacier, 
gladiolus, gondola, gone, gooseberry, gratis, grimace, 
gum-arabic, half, hasten, hearth, heinous, Herculean, 
heroine, herb, homeopathy, horizon, hospitable, hos- 
tage, hostile, hover, hydropathy, hydrotherapy, hy- 
pocrisy, idea, ignoramus, illustrate, imbecile, im- 
potence, incomparable, incongruous, indisputable, 
indissoluble, industry, inexplicable, inquiry, integral, 
interesting, irate, irreparable, irrevocable, isolated, Italian, 
italics, jocund, juvenile, knoll, lamentable, lava, legis- 
lature, leisure, lenient, lethargic, livelong, long-lived, 
lyceum, magazine, maintenance, maniacal, maritime, mas- 
culine, matron, memoir, menagerie, microscopy, mis- 
chievous, morphine, moss, moths, multiplicand, nape, 
nasal, nepotism, nicotine, nomenclature, nothing, oasis, 
obligatory, off, often, opponent, ordeal, orthoepy, out- 
sider, pageant, palaver, Palestine, panorama, path, pathos, 
patois, patriot, patron, patronize, patronage, peremptory. 



276 THE ESSENTIALS OF OUR LANGUAGE. 

Persian, Philistine, piano, piazza, placard, plateau, prec- 
edence, presentation, presbytery, pretence, pretty, privily, 
process, Prussian, puissance, raillery, recess, recourse, 
reputable, research, resource, revocable, robust, romance, 
route, routine, sachem, sacrament, sacrifice, sacrilege, 
salve, senile, sinecure, sleek, snout (not snoot), sojourn, 
squalor, steam-engine, strata, strategic, subsidence, sub- 
tile, subtle, suffice, suite, tepid, thanksgiving, thither, 
tiny, tirade, tomato, tov\^ard, trough, truths, tympanum, 
undersigned, unison, usurp, vagary, vehement, verbose, 
vicar, vindicative, water, withe, wrath, wreaths, wrong, 
zoology, zoophyte. 

51. Thoroughly study the following words with ref- 
erence to both their etymology and present- meaning. 
Employ some of them in original sentences. Microbe, 
shrapnel, sloyd, cuisine, propaganda, flotilla, dowager, 
ritualism, naive, utilitarian, amateur, expansionist, im- 
perialist, iconoclast, pecuniary, feudalism, corrugated, 
syndicate, pyrotechnics, reciprocity, antiseptic, minimize, 
sanitarium, maudlin, paragon, bibliography, Pan-American, 
Mauser, plutocracy, fin-de-si^cle, kopje, veldt. Lyddite, 
subsidy, volt, statistician, ecumenical, liturgy, idealist, 
realistic, lithograph, itinerary, mimeograph, locomobile, 
megaphone, graphophone, insurgent, correlated, socialist, 
folklore, idiosyncrasy, eleemosynary, surreptitious, mas- 
sage, concept, percept, caricature, incubator, environment, 
epitome, palmistry, paraphernalia, insurgent, indemnity, 
cumulative, hegira, journalism, gymnasium, syllabus. 
Renaissance, heredity, collaboration, boatswain, coxswain, 
technique, and Pharisaism. 



INDEX. 



Words in italics are discussed, in the text, as words. 



Abbreviate 210 

abettor 211 

abortive 9 

above 10 

abridge 210 

accede 212 

acceptance 210 

acceptation 210 

accept of 10 

access . 210 

accession 210 

accomplice 211 

accuse ..... 18 

achieve 224 

acquiesce 212 

acquire 210 

act 207 

active 211 

Address, the; examples .... 142-148 

administer 10 

advent , . . 11 

affect 208 

afterward 27 

aggravate ..... 10 

agriculturist . 11 

agile 211 

ago 43 

a great deal 32 

a great many 32 

ain't II 

alert 211 

alien 231 

all of II 

allow ^ ... II, 208 

allude II 

all the same . 12 

almost 34 

alternative 12 

amateur . 208 

ambiguous 227 

ancestors 232 

ancient 209 

andiorto 12 

angry 33 

answer 207 

anticipate 12 

antiquated 209 

antique . . \ '.,... 209 

anxious 13 

anyhow 14 

apart 47 



apparent , . . , 209 

appear 245 

appreciate 14 

apprehend 209 

Apostrophe, the figure of . . . 193, 194 

apt 14 

aptitude .14 

arrange 27 

Article, the, before a representative 

noun 71 

as if . 14 

assent 212 

as though 14 

at any rate 14 

at last - . 211 

at length 211 

atone for 21 

attitude 242 

audience 15 

auditors 15 

authoress 15 

avaricious 214 

avenge 244 

avocation 16 

avoid . . 16, 30 

aware 50 

away 46 

awful . . . 16 

bad 17 

bad cold 17 

badly .... 17 

balance 17 

balustrade 48 

bamboozle 52 

barbaric 214 

barbarous 214 

beastly . 18 

begin 30, 217 

belief. 230 

belong , 18 

beside 18, 50 

bestow 213 

be that as it max 14 

better ....'. 18 

Bible, the literary value of . . . 250-252 

blacken 18 

blame it on 18 

blanch 213 

bleach 213 

boodle 53 

bosh 52 

(277) 



278 



INDEX. 



boss, to 52 

bough 212 

bound 19 

Brackets, the 130 

branch 212 

bravery 212 

breeches 52 

Brevit}', promotes strength . . 178-184 

bring 213 

burglarize 51 

cablegram 51 

calculate ' 19 

can 79 

capable 20 

Capitals, directions for using . .103-106 

capricious 34 

caption 20 

Case of nouns and pronouns after the 

verb to be 68, 69 

Case of pronouns explained and 

illustrated 69-71 

celebrity 20 

celestial 234 

ceremonial 216 

ceremonious 216 

chasteness 216 

chastity 216 

character 20 

chuck 52 

claim 21 

Clearness. . 199-205 

clever 21 

Climax, the 172, 174 

clip . 52 

Coherence, in sentences 205 

Comma, the 109-120 

commence 217 

common 34 

Comparison, explained and illus- 
trated 66-68 

Complimentary close, the . . . 148, 149 
complete .... ......... 226 

comprehend 209 

Concord of subject and predicate, 

explained and illustrated . . 56-60 

condign 21 

condone 21 

confer 213 

confute 216 

congregate together 21 

conquer 218 

consequence 50 

consider 22 

contagion 214 

contemptible 215 

contemptuous 215 

continual 215 

continuous 215 

conversationist 11 

Correspondence, the art of ... . 139 

couple 22 

courage 212 

covetous 214 



credible 22 

creditable 22 

crime 217 

Critics, the, vs. usage 96-102 

custom 217 

customer 38 

dangerous 23 

Dash, ttie 126-130 

deadly 220 

deathly 220 

debase 23 

deceit 222 

deception 222 

decided 220 

decisive ... 220 

defective 223 

defend 219 

deffiite 221 

definitive 221 

Deity 222 

delusion 237 

depot . 43 

demean 23 

depute 47 

description 23 

desirous 13 

despicable . .215 

despite 23 

deteriorate' 23 

determined 19 

difficulty 224 

dirt 24 

disbelief 221 

discern 222 

disability 219 

discount 47 

discretion 220 

discrimifiate 219 

disgrace 23 

disgruntled 52 

displace 41 

disposition 49 

distinguish 219 

divinity 222 

divulge 244 

donate 24 

donation 24 

doesn't 24 

donH 24 

due 24 

duty 241 

earth 24 

editorial 25 

effiect 224 

effective 224 

effectual 225 

efficacious , . 225 

efficient 224 

egoism 226 

egotism 226 

elegant 25 

emigrant 227 

enemy 228 



INDEX. 



279 



225 

enormousness ^. . . . , 225 

enough . \ . . . . 225 

enthuse 51 

entire 226 

Epigram 194-196 

Epithets, suggestive 187 

equable 228 

equally well 25 

equitable 228 

equanimity 25 

equivocal 227 

eternal 229 

ethnography 228 

ethnology 228 

everlasting . . 229 

evidence 226 

ever so 48 

exceedingly 26 

except 26 

exceptionable 229 

exceptional 229 

excessively 26 

excite 227 

Exclamation point, the 108 

execute 26 

expect 13, 19 

exuberant 229 

faith 230 

falseness 229 

falsity 229 

faulty 223 

Faulty metaphors 196-199 

feign 230 

female 27 

fetch 213 

fewer 32 

fib 52 

fish 52 

fix 27 

fizzle .... 52 

foe ..... 228 

forefather , 232 

foreign 231 

foretell . , 232 

fortitude 212 

forzvard 27 

foster 40 

freedom, 237 

fry .52 

funny 47 

future 27 

gain ; 233 

gallowses 52 

garrulous 247 

genius 232 

gentleman 28 

gents , 28 

give , 24 

good-natured 21 

got 28 

grant 24 

graduated 29 



Grecian 233 

guess 29 

Greek 233 

gums 42 

g^ish . 54 

had better 29 

had ought 29 

had rather 29 

hanged 29 

happen i)i 52 

has got , . 28 

haste 233 

headachy 54 

Heading, of a letter 140-142 

healthful 234 

healthy 234 

heavenly ... 234 

heft 52 

help 30 

hung 29 

hunk 52 

hurry 233 

Hyperbole 194 

/, pronoun 66 

"I am about to go" 31 

idea 30 

idle : 234 

ill 30 

illusion 237 

illy 30 

immigrant 227 

impossible 235 

impracticable 235 

inability , 219 

inaugurate 30 

incite 227 

incompatible 236 

incongruous 236 

inconsistent 236 

incredible 237 

incredulous ............. 237 

individual 50 

indolent . 234 

indorse 48 

ineffectual 51 

infection 214 

informal -39 

ingenious 236 

ingenuous 236 

in our midst 30 

inquiring 237 

inquisitive ... ....... 237 

in regard to 30 

in respect of ....... 30 

in respect to 30 

in spite of 23 

intend 19 

Interrogation, figure of ... . 175, 176 

Interrogation point, the 60-64 

Interrogative pronouns 60, 61 

introduce 243 

intrude 236 

Inversion; device for emphasis, 176-178 



2So 



INDEX. 



jeopard 31 

jeopardize 31 

kelter -54 

kid 53 

kinsvimi 31 

know-all 54 

lady 28 

last .33 

latest 33 

lay; principal parts 71 

leader 25 

lend 32 

lengthy 31 

leniency 31 

lenity 31 

less 32. 

lesser 32 

Letters, formal and informal . 139, 140 

lie (untruth) 238 

lie (recline), principal parts 01 . . . 71 

liable 14 

lief 47 

liberty 237 

lighted 237 

like 33 

likely 14 

limited 32 

lit 32 

little . 238 

loan 32 

locate 32 

long 31 

loquacious 247 

lot 32 

lots 33 

loud 33 

louder 33 

loudest ■ . 33 

loudly 33 

love 33 

lunch 33 

luncheon • • 33 

luxuriayit 33 

luxurious 33 

mad 33 

maintain 21 

make a visit 34 

male 27 

malevolence 238 

malice 238 

malignity 238 

marine 239 

maritime 239 

maternal 239 

may (verb) 79 

7ne, case of 66 

mercenary 239 

Metaphor 190-192 

Metonymy 187 

middling 34 

mif ■ ■ 53 

mighty 34 

mind (verb) 34 



mor e than 

mortal 

mossback , . . . 

most 

fnotherly 

muffish . . . 

mutual 

nag 

nasty . . . 

natty 

nautical 

naval 

neighborhood 

7iever so . 

new 

nice 

nicely 

none . . 

Notes, formal and informal . . 151- 

noted . . . 

notorious 

Nouns, special, number, forms of . 

novel 

novice 

O and oh 

obligation ... 

observance 

observation . . . 

observe 

obsolete 

obstacle 

obtain 

obtrude 

obvious 

offish 

off _ of 

opinion 

opposite 

oral 

orate 

ought 

overcome 

overshoes 

owing . . 

pantaloons . '. 

pants . ... 

paradox 

Paraphrasing- 253, 

parsimonious 

partake 

part 

party 

patron 

pay a visit 

peaceable 

peaceful 

peeper 

pell-mell 

perceive 

Period, the 106. 

Periodic sentence, the ...... 162 

permit 

perpetual . . . . 



18 

220 

53 

34 

239 

53 

34 

54 

35 

53 

239 

239 

42 

35 

240 

35 

36 

36 

154 

240 

240 

75 

24 

208 

36 

241 

241 

241 

36 

209 

224 

210 

236 

209 

54 

37 

30 

240 

46 

51 

242 

218 

42 

24 

37 

37 

37 

254 

214 

37 
39 
38 
38 



242 

242 



107 

171 
20S 



INDEX. 



281 



Personification 192, 193 

persuade 243 

pleaded 38 

plentiful • • ■ • 39 

plenty 38 

plug ,53 

Plural forms of compound nouns, 74, 75 

poetess 15 

point of view 43 

portion 39 

possess 29 

Possessive Case, how to form ... 73 
Possessive Case before participle . 68 

Parenthesis, marks of 126-130 

posted 39 

posture 242 

Practical suggestions; letter-writ- 
ing 154-156 

predict 232 

prejudice . 39 

prepossess 39 

Prepositions, care in the use of . 84-88 
Present, the, and perfect, the infin- 
itive 84 

pretend , . . 230 

preventive . 39 

pride 243 

procedure 48 

procure 40 

Prolixity 180, 181 

promote 40 

Pronunciation, exercises in . . 274-276 

proposal . 40 

proposition 40 

protect 219 

proven 40 

provided 40 

providing 40 

prudence 220 

pull 53 

Punctuation 106 

pupil 42 

Quotation marks; explained and 

illustrated 131-138 

raise 40, 71 

rashness 248 

rattle 53 

real 40 

rear 40 

reckon 53 

recollect 244 

recompense 244 

refer 11 

refute 216 

regarded 22 

relation . . . 41 

relative 41 

remainder . 17 

remember . 244 

remuneration 244 

rendition 41 

repair 27 



Repetition; its uses 184, 185 

replace 41 

reply 207 

reputation 20 

Requirements in practise . . . 252-276 

reside 41 

residence 41 

rest 17 

resurrect , 41 

reticent 246 

retire . , 42 

reveal 244 

revenge 244 

reverend 48 

reverent 48 

tight away 47 

rise, principal parts of 71 

rope in 53 

rugged 53 

run . 54 

Sabbath 42 

safe 245 

Salutation, the; examples . . . 143-148 

scalawag 53 

scamp 54 

scare 54 

scholar 42 

scoff 247 

scoot 53 

scfape 47 

section 42 

secure 245 

seedy 54 

seem 245 

seldom, if ever 43 

Semicolon, the, and colon, the, 120-126 

sensual 246 

sensuous 246 

Sentence-building, the art of . . 157-206 
Sentence, long and short, 158-162; pe- 
riodic, loose, balanced .... 162-17 1 

set; principal parts 71 

settle 32, 43 

shag-rag 53 

shaky 54 

shall and will 76-79 

shaver 53 

ship 53 

should 242 

sight 53 

Signature, the; examples . . . 149, 150 

silent 246 

Simile 188-190 

since 43 

set; principal parts 71 

site . 246 

situation . 246 

small 32 

snake 53 

sneer 247 

Solecism, defined 55 

some place 38 

somewhat 43 



282 



INDEX. 



sorehead 54 

Specific words 185-187 

specialty 43 

spin . '. 53 

splurge 54 

sport. . 54 

state 43 

station • 43 

stay 44 

stimulant 247 

stimulus 247 

stop 44 

student 42 

stricken 44 

struck 44 

subdue 218 

Subjunctive mode, the 81 

subsequent 27 

such 44 

sufficient 225 

Sunday 42 

Superscription, the: examples . 150-152 

supersede 41 

supply 27 

suppose 19, 26 

sure 44 

susceptible 20 

suspect 18 

swell 54 

Synonyms, practical, discrimi- 
nated 207-248 

Syntax; defined, 55: illustrated . 88-93 

taciturn 246 

talkative 247 

tantrum 54 

temerity 248 

testimony 226 

that^ these, this, and those; uses 

illustrated 65 

thanks 45 

thereafter 27 

thick 53 

tip ■ 54 

Titles, honorary and literary . 142-145 



toward 27 

transpire 45 

trousers 37 

trust 230 

unbeknown 45 

unbelief 221 

Unchangeable notions, require verb 
in present tense ........ 80, 81 

under signattire 45 

universal panacea 37 

unless 26 

untruth 238 

upward of 45 

valuable 45 

value 248 

valued 45 

vanity 243 

vanquish 218 

venal 239 

veracity 46 

verbal 46 

very 34 

vice 217 

vicinity 42 

vim 53 

visitant . . . . 248 

visitor 248 

vocation 16 

was graduated . 29 

way 46 

well 36 

whence 46 

whiten 213 

widow woman 46 

will and shall 76-79 

win 233 

wire, verb 53 

Words; how mastered .... 249-252 

without .... • 26 

woman 27 

worth 248 

would better 29 

would rather .29 

yank 53 



w\^^ 



\m 



MAY 12 1902 
1 COPY DEL. vouuuv. 



190?. 



